Laboratory Experiments to Understand Comets

In order to understand the origin and evolution of comets, one must decipher the processes that formed and processed cometary ice and dust. Cometary materials have diverse physical and chemical properties and are mixed in various ways. Laboratory experiments are capable of producing simple to complex analogues of comet-like materials, measuring their properties, and simulating the processes by which their compositions and structures may evolve. The results of laboratory experiments are essential for the interpretations of comet observations and complement theoretical models. They are also necessary for planning future missions to comets. This chapter presents an overview of past and ongoing laboratory experiments exploring how comets were formed and transformed, from the nucleus interior and surface, to the coma. Throughout these sections, the pending questions are highlighted, and the perspectives and prospects for future experiments are discussed.Comment: 36 pages, 13 figures, Chapter accepted for publication on February 24th 2023, now in press for the book Comets III, edited by K. Meech, M. Combi, D. Bockelee-Morvan, S. Raymond and M. Zolensky, University of Arizona Pres

New benzene absorption cross sections in the VUV, relevance for Titan’s upper atmosphere

This is a pre-print (pre-peer review) manuscript. It is moderately different from the accepted manuscript and from the published article. Citation of published article: Fernando J. Capalbo, Yves Bénilan, Nicolas Fray, Martin Schwell, Norbert Champion, Et-touhami Es-sebbar, Tommi T. Koskinen, Ivan Lehocki, Roger V. Yelle. Icarus, vol. 265, p. 95 - 109. February 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2015.10.006.International audienceBenzene is an important molecule in Titan’s atmosphere because it is a potential link between the gas phase and the organic solid phase. We measured photoabsorption in the ultraviolet by benzene gas at temperatures covering the range from room temperature to 215 K. We derived benzene absorption cross sections and analyzed them in terms of the transitions observed. No significant variation with measurement temperature was observed. We discuss the implications of our measurements for the derivation of benzene abundance profiles in Titan’s thermosphere, by the Cassini/Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS). The use of absorption cross sections at low temperature is recommended to avoid small systematic uncertainties in the profiles. We used our measurements, together with absorption cross sections from other molecules, to analyze four stellar occultations by Titan, measured by UVIS during flybys T21, T41, T41_II, and T53. We derived and compared benzene abundance profiles in Titan’s thermosphere between approximately 530 and 1000 km, for different dates and geographical locations. The comparisons of our benzene profiles with each other, and with profiles from models of the upper atmosphere, point to a complex behavior that is not explained by current photochemical models

COSIMA-Rosetta calibration for in-situ characterization of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko cometary inorganic compounds

20 pages, 3 figures, 5 tablesInternational audienceCOSIMA (COmetary Secondary Ion Mass Analyser) is a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF-SIMS) on board the Rosetta space mission. COSIMA has been designed to measure the composition of cometary dust grains. It has a mass resolution m/{\Delta}m of 1400 at mass 100 u, thus enabling the discrimination of inorganic mass peaks from organic ones in the mass spectra. We have evaluated the identification capabilities of the reference model of COSIMA for inorganic compounds using a suite of terrestrial minerals that are relevant for cometary science. Ground calibration demonstrated that the performances of the flight model were similar to that of the reference model. The list of minerals used in this study was chosen based on the mineralogy of meteorites, interplanetary dust particles and Stardust samples. It contains anhydrous and hydrous ferromagnesian silicates, refractory silicates and oxides (present in meteoritic Ca-Al-rich inclusions), carbonates, and Fe-Ni sulfides. From the analyses of these minerals, we have calculated relative sensitivity factors for a suite of major and minor elements in order to provide a basis for element quantification for the possible identification of major mineral classes present in the cometary grains

The detection of solid phosphorus and fluorine in the dust from the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

Here, we report the detection of phosphorus and fluorine in solid particles collected from the inner coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko measured with the COmetary Secondary Ion Mass Analyser (COSIMA) instrument on-board the Rosetta spacecraft, only a few kilometers away from the comet nucleus. We have detected phosphorus-containing minerals from the presented COSIMA mass spectra, and can rule out e.g. apatite minerals as the source of phosphorus. This result completes the detection of life-necessary CHNOPS-elements in solid cometary matter, indicating cometary delivery as a potential source of these elements to the young Earth. Fluorine was also detected with CF+ secondary ions originating from the cometary dust. </p

Carbon-rich dust in comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko measured by COSIMA/Rosetta

Cometary ices are rich in CO2, CO and organic volatile compounds, but the carbon content of cometary dust was only measured for the Oort Cloud comet 1P/Halley, during its flyby in 1986. The COmetary Secondary Ion Mass Analyzer (COSIMA)/Rosetta mass spectrometer analysed dust particles with sizes ranging from 50 to 1000 μm, collected over 2 yr, from 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P), a Jupiter family comet. Here, we report 67P dust composition focusing on the elements C and O. It has a high carbon content (atomic |${\rm{C}}/{\rm{Si}} = 5.5{\rm{\ }}_{ - 1.2}^{ + 1.4}\ \ {\rm{on\ average}}$ |⁠) close to the solar value and comparable to the 1P/Halley data. From COSIMA measurements, we conclude that 67P particles are made of nearly 50 per cent organic matter in mass, mixed with mineral phases that are mostly anhydrous. The whole composition, rich in carbon and non-hydrated minerals, points to a primitive matter that likely preserved its initial characteristics since the comet accretion in the outer regions of the protoplanetary disc.</p

Nitrogen-to-carbon atomic ratio measured by COSIMA in the particles of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

The COmetary Secondary Ion Mass Analyzer (COSIMA) on board the Rosetta mission has analysed numerous cometary dust particles collected at very low velocities (a few m s−1) in the environment of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (hereafter 67P). In these particles, carbon and nitrogen are expected mainly to be part of the organic matter. We have measured the nitrogen-to-carbon (N/C) atomic ratio of 27 cometary particles. It ranges from 0.018 to 0.06 with an averaged value of 0.035 ± 0.011. This is compatible with the measurements of the particles of comet 1P/Halley and is in the lower range of the values measured in comet 81P/Wild 2 particles brought back to Earth by the Stardust mission. Moreover, the averaged value found in 67P particles is also similar to the one found in the insoluble organic matter extracted from CM, CI and CR carbonaceous chondrites and to the bulk values measured in most interplanetary dust particles and micrometeorites. The close agreement of the N/C atomic ratio in all these objects indicates that their organic matters share some similarities and could have a similar chemical origin. Furthermore, compared to the abundances of all the detected elements in the particles of 67P and to the elemental solar abundances, the nitrogen is depleted in the particles and the nucleus of 67P as was previously inferred also for comet 1P/Halley. This nitrogen depletion could constrain the formation scenarios of cometary nuclei.</p

Halogens as tracers of protosolar nebula material in comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

We report the first in situ detection of halogens in a cometary coma, that of 67P/ChuryumovGerasimenko. Neutral gas mass spectra collected by the European Space Agency’s Rosetta spacecraft during four periods of interest from the first comet encounter up to perihelion indicate that the main halogen-bearing compounds are HF, HCl and HBr. The bulk elemental abundances relative to oxygen are ~8.9 × 10⁻⁵ for F/O, ~1.2 × 10⁻⁴ for Cl/O and ~2.5 × 10⁻⁶ for Br/O, for the volatile fraction of the comet. The cometary isotopic ratios for ³⁷Cl/³⁵Cl and ⁸¹Br/⁷⁹Br match the Solar system values within the error margins. The observations point to an origin of the hydrogen halides in molecular cloud chemistry, with frozen hydrogen halides on dust grains, and a subsequent incorporation into comets as the cloud condensed and the Solar system formed

Physico-chimie d'intérêt astrophysique & Formation et évolution de la matière organique cométaire.

Ce document présente une sélection des travaux que j'ai effectués entre 2004 et 2013. Ils concernent plus particulièrement la spectroscopie dans l'ultraviolet du vide, les équilibres solide - gaz à basses températures et la caractérisation de la matière organique réfractaire contenue dans les comètes. L'application de ces travaux expérimentaux en laboratoire à différents objets du système solaire est explicitée

Etude experimentale et theorique de la contribution de la composante organique refractaire a la phase gazeuse dans l'environnement cometaire

This Ph.D. work is an experimental and theoretical study of the contribution of the refractory organic component of comets to their gaseous phase. Some gaseous species observed in the coma, such as the formaldehyde (H2CO) and the cyanogen radicals (CN), are not only produced by the nucleus sublimation or the photodissociation of gaseous molecules. They could be produced by the degradation of the refractory organics materials present in cometary grains. The purpose of this Ph.D. work is to test this hypothesis. First, I have measured the quantum yields and the kinetics of production of gaseous species by UV irradiation and heating of solid organic compounds. Then, these data have been incorporated into a model of the cometary environment taking into account such processes. This existing model has also been improved to compare the calculations to recent measurements in comet Hale Bopp. HCN polymers and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) have been proposed to explain the origin of CN radicals. I have irradiated in the far UV and heated theses compounds in conditions representative of the cometary environment. I show that the HMT is particularly stable under UV irradiation and that it sublimates without fragmentation into smaller gaseous compounds when heated under vacuum. Thus HMT does not seem to be a good candidate as a parent compound of the cometary CN radicals. Thus, I have concentrated my study on the degradation of HCN polymers. I show, by infrared spectroscopy, the production of HCN, CO, CH4 and C2H2 by irradiation of these polymers at 122 and 147 nm and the production of NH3, HCN, HNCO and CO by heating at temperatures ranging from 430 to 580 K. The production kinetics of all these gaseous species have been quantified thanks to the analysis of the temporal evolution of the infrared spectra. However, measurements by laser induced fluorescence (LIF) do not reach the detection limit required to allow the detection of CN radicals supposed to be produced by the degradation of the HCN polymers. Nevertheless, I have modeled the production of CN radical in the cometary environment supposing that their production from HCN polymer degradation is equal to the one measured for HCN. Whereas the column density could not be adequately reproduced, this hypothesis could not be rejected. Its confirmation requires further experimental studies.I have also continued a previous study of the H2CO production in cometary environment, adapting the modeling to the case of comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp). Indeed in this comet, the H2CO production rates display a much steeper evolution with heliocentric distance than other species of similar volatility, like HCN or H2S. First, I have obtained new experimental data on the thermal degradation of polyoxymethylene (POM) on a large temperature range and for two different polymers. Then, taking into account the POM degradation, I have reproduced the H2CO production rates in this comet and I have shown that their heliocentric evolution is due to the predominance of the thermal degradation of POM for heliocentric distance up to 3,5 UA. This work confirms that the POM degradation could explain the H2CO origin and that, whatever the considered heliocentric distance, the contribution of the refractory organic component to the gaseous phase of comets has to be taken into account.Ce travail de thèse est une étude expérimentale et théorique de la contribution de la composante organique réfractaire des comètes à leur phase gazeuse. Certaines espèces gazeuses observées dans la coma, telles que le formaldéhyde (H2CO) et les radicaux cyanogènes (CN), ne sont pas produites uniquement par la sublimation du noyau ou par la photodissociation d'autres molécules gazeuses. Elles pourraient provenir de la dégradation de la composante organique réfractaire présente dans les grains cométaires. L'objectif de cette thèse est de tester cette hypothèse. Dans un premier temps, les rendements quantiques et les paramètres cinétiques de production d'espèces gazeuses par irradiation dans l'UV lointain et dégradation thermique de composés organiques solides sont déterminés expérimentalement. Dans un deuxième temps, un modèle physico-chimique de la coma, prenant en compte ces processus de dégradation, a été développé. Les polymères de HCN et l'hexaméthylènetétramine (ou HMT, C6H12N4) ayant été proposés afin d'expliquer l'origine des radicaux cyanogènes, j'ai irradié et chauffé ces composés solides dans des conditions représentatives de l'environnement cométaire. Je montre ainsi que l'hexaméthylènetétramine est particulièrement stable par irradiation dans l'UV lointain et que ce composé ne se dégrade pas mais se sublime lorsqu'il est chauffé sous vide. Le HMT ne semble donc pas être un bon candidat pour une source de radicaux CN dans l'environnement cométaire. Je me suis ensuite concentré sur l'étude de la dégradation des polymères de HCN. J'ai mis en évidence, par spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (IRTF), la production de HCN, CO, CH4 et C2H2 par irradiation à 122 et 147 nm de ces polymères et celles de NH3, HCN, HNCO et CO par chauffage entre 430 et 580 K. La vitesse de production de l'ensemble de ces espèces gazeuses a été quantifiée grâce à l'analyse de l'évolution temporelle des spectres infrarouge. D'autre part, la mesure par spectroscopie de fluorescence induite par laser (LIF) n'a pas permis d'atteindre la limite de détection nécessaire pour détecter le radical CN à partir de la dégradation des polymères de HCN. J'ai donc modélisé la production des radicaux CN dans la coma en supposant que leur production est égale à celle mesurée pour l'acide cyanhydrique (HCN). Bien que la densité de colonne des radicaux CN ne puisse pas être fidèlement reproduite en prenant en compte la dégradation des polymères de HCN, cette hypothèse ne peut pas être infirmée. Sa confirmation nécessite des études expérimentales supplémentaires. En parallèle à ce travail sur la production des radicaux CN, j'ai poursuivi une étude précédemment menée au laboratoire afin d'expliquer la production de H2CO dans C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp). Dans cette comète, les taux de production de H2CO présentent une évolution héliocentrique plus rapide que celle d'autres composés gazeux similaires, tels que HCN ou H2S. J'ai tout d'abord obtenu de nouvelles données expérimentales concernant la dégradation thermique du polyoxyméthylène (polymère de H2CO, -(CH2-O)n-) dans une large gamme de température et pour deux types de polymères. Ceci me permet alors de reproduire les mesures des taux de production de H2CO dans cette comète et de montrer que l'évolution héliocentrique peut être expliquée par la prédominance de la production de H2CO par dégradation thermique du POM jusqu'à des distances de 3,5 UA. Ce travail confirme donc que la dégradation du POM permet d'expliquer l'origine du H2CO et que, quelle que soit la distance héliocentrique, la contribution de la phase organique réfractaire à la phase gazeuse des comètes doit être prise en compte