5 research outputs found
Global maps of soil temperature
Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km2 resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km2 pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world\u27s major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications
Intangibles and methods for their valuation in financial terms: literature review
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to review literature devoted to intangibles and their
valuation and give examples of the methods that can be used for valuation of individual
intangibles in financial terms.
Design/methodology: The paper presents a systematic review of articles dedicated to
intangibles and their valuation.
Findings: This article presents the definitions of intangibles, intangible assets, knowledge
assets and other related terms. These terms are used interchangeably in spite of their different
meanings. Differences and relations between these terms are clearly explained. The paper also
proposes the list of basic intangibles with suggested methods for their valuation in financial
terms. Income and cost approaches should be used mainly in this purpose. Market approach
has only limited use. Research limitations/implications: Not all the papers related to this topic could be covered
in this paper. Presented list of important intangible components may be enhanced and
examples of some other methods for their valuation may be added in the future.
Practical implications: The paper calls for development of framework comprising list of the
most important intangibles, proposals of methods used for their valuation and examples of
their use. This framework can be helpful for organisation, which are confronted with a difficult
task of intangibles valuation.
Originality/value: Basic definitions and differences between intangibles, intangible assets,
identifiable intangible assets, knowledge assets and intellectual capital have not been mentioned
in one paper yet. List of intangibles and methods for their valuation gives a direction for future
work that can be fruitful for valuation of intangibles