Pricing strategies and levels and their impact on corporate profitability

Price policy definition is one of the most important decisions in management as it affects corporate profitability and market competitiveness. Despite the importance that prices take in organizations, it appears that this element has not received proper attention by many academics and marketers since it represents, according to estimates, less than 2% of the papers on leading journals in the field. Thus, the aim of this study was to propose and test a theoretical model showing the impacts of pricing policy on corporate profitability. To this end, 150 companies in the metal-mechanic sector situated in the Northeast of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil were studied, integrating customer value-based pricing strategies, competition-based pricing strategies and cost-based pricing strategies with price levels (high and low) and performance with respect to profitability. The results indicate that the profitability of the surveyed companies is positively affected by value-based pricing strategy and high price levels while it is negatively affected by low price levels. Such findings indicate that pricing policies influence the profitability of organizations and therefore, a more strategic look at the pricing process may constitute one aspect that cannot be overlooked by managers.A definição da política de preços é uma das mais importantes decisões no âmbito da gestão, pois afeta a lucratividade das empresas e sua competitividade no mercado. Apesar da importância que o preço assume nas organizações, parece que tal elemento não tem recebido a devida atenção de muitos acadêmicos e profissionais de marketing, por representar menos de 2% dos artigos das principais revistas da área, segundo estimativas. Desta forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi o de propor e testar um modelo teórico que indique os impactos da política de preços sobre a lucratividade das empresas. Para tanto, foram estudadas 150 empresas do polo metal-mecânico situadas na região Nordeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, integrando-se as estratégias de preços baseadas em valor para o cliente, na concorrência e em custos com os níveis (altos e baixos) de preços praticados e o seu desempenho no que se refere à lucratividade. Os resultados indicam que a lucratividade das empresas estudadas é afetada positivamente pela estratégia de preços baseada em valor e níveis altos de preço e negativamente pelos níveis baixos de preço. Tais achados sinalizam que as políticas de preços são impactantes na lucratividade das organizações e que, portanto, um olhar mais estratégico para o processo de formação de preços constitui um aspecto que não pode ser negligenciado pelos gestores.La definición de la política de precios es una de las decisiones más importantes en la gestión, ya que afecta a la rentabilidad de las empresas y su competitividad en el mercado. A pesar de la importancia que el precio tiene en las organizaciones, parece que este elemento no ha recibido la debida atención de muchos académicos y profesionales de marketing, dado que el tema aparece en menos del 2% de los artículos de las principales revistas del área, según estimaciones. El objetivo en este estudio es proponer y poner a prueba un modelo teórico que indique los impactos de la política de precios en la rentabilidad de las empresas. Para ello, se han estudiado 150 empresas del parque industrial metalmecánico ubicado en la región nordeste del estado de Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, y se han integrado las estrategias de fijación de precios con base en el valor para el cliente, en la competencia y en los costos con los niveles de precios (altos y bajos) y su desempeño con respecto a la rentabilidad. Los resultados indican que la rentabilidad de las empresas es afectada positivamente por la estrategia de precios basada en el valor y niveles de precios altos, y negativamente por los niveles de precios bajos. Los hallazgos indican que las políticas de precios producen efectos en la rentabilidad de las organizaciones y que, por lo tanto, una mirada más estratégica al proceso de fijación de precios constituye un aspecto que los administradores no pueden dejar de tener en cuenta

Agrupamento de empresas a partir de suas estratégias de precificação e níveis de desempenho: um estudo no setor metalmecânico de Caxias do Sul

Esse estudo verificou a constituição de grupos de empresas a partir de suas estratégias de precificação e níveis de desempenho. Como método de pesquisa, realizou-se uma pesquisa quantitativo-descritiva do tipo survey com os responsáveis pelo processo de precificação de 153 empresas afiliadas ao Sindicato das Indústrias Metalúrgicas e de Material Elétrico de Caxias do Sul (SIMECS). Para a análise dos resultados, foi empregada a Análise Fatorial, Análise de Variância (ANOVA) e Análise de Cluster. Identificaram-se três grupos de empresas ou clusters, sendo que o Cluster 1 concentra as empresas de menor porte com menor desempenho e os demais Clusters com um desempenho superior. Além disso, os dados sugerem que empresas que pertencem ao Cluster 2 e ao Cluster 3, que conseguiram captar melhor o valor percebido dos clientes e optaram por uma estratégia de preços altos, apresentam um melhor desempenho diante dos seus principais concorrentes

AS ESTRATÉGIAS DE PRECIFICAÇÃO E O DESEMPENHO DAS EMPRESAS

The price is one of the main aspects when costumers are choosing products. Factors such as a higher level of differentiation of products, technological developments and globalization of the economy increased the importance of price, because it is a key element in order to reach the sales amount desired as well as for having an impact in the profitability of the companies. Furthermore, the pricing strategies are paramount for a suitable market positioning consolidation. Therefore, this paper has analysed the strategies and the processes of pricing of 153 enterprises that are part of the Sindicato das Indústrias Metalúrgicas e de Material Elétrico of Caxias do Sul (RS) (SIMECS), verifying the relationship between pricing decision make and their performance. As for the research method, a survey was conducted with a quantitative-descriptive approach with the persons responsible for the pricing process in their respective enterprises. The analysis of the results used the Factor Analysis and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The main results suggest that there are differences between prices approaches and strategies used and differences in performance levels provided between the activities of branches as well as in relation to the size of the companies surveyed. The data suggest that enterprises that best capture the value perceived by customers, coupled with a high pricing strategy, perform better in front of its main competitors.El precio es uno de los principales aspectos determinantes para la elección de los productos por los compradores. Factores tales como una mayor diferenciación de los productos, los avances tecnológicos y la globalización económica tienen a ver con el aumento de la importancia de precio, ya que es uno de los elementos clave para lograr el volumen deseado de las ventas y el impacto sobre los beneficios y la rentabilidad de las empresas. Además, las estrategias de fijación de precios son fundamentales para la consolidación de un adecuado posicionamiento de mercado. Por lo tanto, este estudio analizó las estrategias y procesos de fijación de precios utilizados en 153 empresas afiliadas a el Sindicato das Indústrias Metalúrgicas e de Material Elétrico de Caxias do Sul (RS) (SIMECS), con la intención de comprobar la relación de las decisiones de fijación de precios con el desempeño de estas empresas. Como método de investigación, se llevó a cabo una investigación cuantitativa descriptiva con los responsables de la fijación de precios de estas empresas. Para analizar los resultados, se utilizó el Análisis Factorial y el Análisis de la Varianza (ANOVA). Los principales resultados indican que existen diferencias entre los enfoques y estrategias de precios utilizadas y diferencias en los niveles de rendimiento previstos entre las ramas de actividad, así como en relación con el tamaño de las empresas encuestadas. Los datos sugieren que las empresas que mejor captan el valor percibido por los clientes, junto con una estrategia de alto precio, tienen un mejor desempeño frente a sus principales competidores.O preço é um dos principais aspectos determinantes para a escolha dos produtos pelos compradores. Fatores como maior diferenciação dos produtos, desenvolvimentos tecnológicos e globalização da economia fizerem com que o preço ganhasse importância, pois é um dos elementos chave para alcançar o volume de vendas desejado e por impactar nos lucros e na rentabilidade das empresas. Além disso, as estratégias de precificação são fundamentais para a consolidação de um posicionamento de mercado adequado. Sendo assim, este trabalho analisou as estratégias e os processos de precificação utilizados em 153 empresas afiliadas ao Sindicato das Indústrias Metalúrgicas e de Material Elétrico de Caxias do Sul (RS) (SIMECS), verificando a relação das decisões de preço com o desempenho destas empresas. Como método de pesquisa, foi realizada uma pesquisa quantitativo-descritiva do tipo survey com os responsáveis pelo processo de precificação destas empresas. Para a análise dos resultados, foi empregada a Análise Fatorial e a Análise de Variância (ANOVA). Os principais resultados sugerem que existem diferenças entre as abordagens e as estratégias de preços utilizadas e diferenças de níveis de desempenho apresentados entre os ramos de atuação, bem como em relação ao porte das empresas pesquisadas. Os dados sugerem que empresas que captam melhor o valor percebido pelos clientes, aliado a uma estratégia de preços altos, apresentam um melhor desempenho diante dos seus principais concorrentes

Intensity and physiological responses to the 6-minute walk test in middle-aged and older adults: a comparison with cardiopulmonary exercise testing

The 6-minute walk test (6MWT) is a simple field test that is widely used in clinical settings to assess functional exercise capacity. However, studies with healthy subjects are scarce. We hypothesized that the 6MWT might be useful to assess exercise capacity in healthy subjects. the purpose of this study was to evaluate 6MWT intensity in middle-aged and older adults, as well as to develop a simple equation to predict oxygen uptake (V) over dotO(2)) from the 6-min walk distance (6MWD). Eighty-six participants, 40 men and 46 women, 40-74 years of age and with a mean body mass index of 28 +/- 6 kg/m(2), performed the 6MWT according to American Thoracic Society guidelines. Physiological responses were evaluated during the 6MWT using a K4b2 Cosmed telemetry gas analyzer. On a different occasion, the subjects performed ramp protocol cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) on a treadmill. Peak (V) over dotO(2) in the 6MWT corresponded to 78 +/- 13% of the peak (V) over dotO(2) during CPET, and the maximum heart rate corresponded to 80 +/- 23% of that obtained in CPET. Peak (V) over dotO(2) in CPET was adequately predicted by the 6MWD by a linear regression equation: (V) over dotO(2) mL.min(-1).kg(-1) = -2.863 + (0.0563 x 6MWD(m)) (R-2 = 0.76). the 6MWT represents a moderate-to-high intensity activity in middle-aged and older adults and proved to be useful for predicting cardiorespiratory fitness in the present study. Our results suggest that the 6MWT may also be useful in asymptomatic individuals, and its use in walk-based conditioning programs should be encouraged.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano EPIMOV, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilInst Med Cardiovasc Angiocorpore, Santos, SP, BrazilUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano EPIMOV, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2007/08673-3Web of Scienc

Evaluation of dose-response relationship between smoking load and cardiopulmonary fitness in adult smokers: A cross-sectional study

Objective: To evaluate the dose-response relationship between smoking load and cardiopulmonary fitness, as measured with cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), in adult smokers free of respiratory diseases. Methods: After a complete clinical evaluation and spirometry, 95 adult smokers (35 men and 60 women) underwent CPET on a treadmill. Results: The physiological responses during CPET showed lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels, regardless of smoking load, with a peak V-o2(') lower than 100% of the expected value and a lower maximum heart rate. We observed a significant moderate negative correlation between smoking load and peak V-o2('). The smoking load also presented a significant negative correlation with maximum heart rate(r=-0.36p < 0.05), lactate threshold(r=-0.45p < 0.05), and peak ventilation(r=-0.43p<0.05). However, a dose-response relationship between smoking load quartiles and cardiopulmonary fitness was not found comparing quartiles of smoking loads after adjustment for age, sex and cardiovascular risk. Conclusion: There appears to be no dose-response relationship between SL and cardiopulmonary fitness in adult smokers with preserved pulmonary function, after adjusting the analysis for age and cardiovascular risk. Our results suggest that smoking cessation might be useful as the primary strategy to prevent cardiopulmonary fitness decline in smokers, regardless of smoking load. Thus, even a very low dose of tobacco use must be avoided in preventive strategies focusing on becoming people more physically active and fit. (C) 2016 Sociedade Portuguese de Pneumologia. Published by Elsevier Espana, S.L.U. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Lab Epidemiol & Human Movement EPIMOV, Santos, BrazilAngiocorpore Inst Cardiovasc Med, Santos, BrazilUniv Fed Sao Paulo, Lab Epidemiol & Human Movement EPIMOV, Santos, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/07282-6Web of Scienc

Use of cardiopulmonary exercise testing to assess early ventilatory changes related to occupational particulate matter

Spirometry has been used as the main strategy for assessing ventilatory changes related to occupational exposure to particulate matter (OEPM). However, in some cases, as one of its limitations, it may not be sensitive enough to show abnormalities before extensive damage, as seen in restrictive lung diseases. Therefore, we hypothesized that cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) may be better than spirometry to detect early ventilatory impairment caused by OEPM. We selected 135 male workers with at least one year of exposure. After collection of self-reported socioeconomic status, educational level, and cardiovascular risk data, participants underwent spirometry, CPET, body composition assessment (bioelectrical impedance), and triaxial accelerometry (for level of physical activity in daily life). CPET was performed using a ramp protocol on a treadmill. Metabolic, cardiovascular, ventilatory, and submaximal relationships were measured. We compared 52 exposed to 83 non-exposed workers. Multiple linear regressions were developed using spirometry and CPET variables as outcomes and OEPM as the main predictor, and adjusted by the main covariates. Our results showed that OEPM was associated with significant reductions in peak minute ventilation, peak tidal volume, and breathing reserve index. Exposed participants presented shallower slope of Delta VT/Delta lnE (breathing pattern), i.e., increased tachypneic breathing pattern. The OEPM explained 7.4% of the Delta VT/Delta lnE variability. We found no significant influence of spirometric indices after multiple linear regressions. We conclude that CPET might be a more sensitive feature of assessing early pulmonary impairment related to OEPM. Our cross-sectional results suggested that CPET is a promising tool for the screening of asymptomatic male workers.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilInst Med Cardiovasc Angiocorpore, Santos, SP, BrazilUniv Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/07282-6Web of Scienc

Correlation between heart rate variability and pulmonary function adjusted by confounding factors in healthy adults

The autonomic nervous system maintains homeostasis, which is the state of balance in the body. That balance can be determined simply and noninvasively by evaluating heart rate variability (HRV). However, independently of autonomic control of the heart, HRV can be influenced by other factors, such as respiratory parameters. Little is known about the relationship between HRV and spirometric indices. In this study, our objective was to determine whether HRV correlates with spirometric indices in adults without cardiopulmonary disease, considering the main confounders (e.g., smoking and physical inactivity). In a sample of 119 asymptomatic adults (age 20-80 years), we evaluated forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1). We evaluated resting HRV indices within a 5-min window in the middle of a 10-min recording period, thereafter analyzing time and frequency domains. To evaluate daily physical activity, we instructed participants to use a triaxial accelerometer for 7 days. Physical inactivity was defined as <150 min/week of moderate to intense physical activity. We found that FVC and FEV1, respectively, correlated significantly with the following aspects of the RR interval: standard deviation of the RR intervals (r= 0.31 and 0.35), low-frequency component (r= 0.38 and 0.40), and Poincare plot SD2 (r= 0.34 and 0.36). Multivariate regression analysis, adjusted for age, sex, smoking, physical inactivity, and cardiovascular risk, identified the SD2 and dyslipidemia as independent predictors of FVC and FEV1 (R-2= 0.125 and 0.180, respectively, for both). We conclude that pulmonary function is influenced by autonomic control of cardiovascular function, independently of the main confounders.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilUniv Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Biociencias, Santos, SP, BrazilAngioCorpore Inst Med Cardiovasc, Santos, SP, BrazilUniv Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Ciencias Movimento Humano, Lab Epidemiol & Movimento Humano, Santos, SP, BrazilUniv Fed Sao Paulo, Dept Biociencias, Santos, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/07282-6Web of Scienc