Trends in energy and nutrient supply in Ethiopia: a perspective from FAO food balance sheets

Background: Ethiopia is the second-most populous country in Africa. Although most people still live in rural areas, the urban population is increasing. Generally, urbanisation is associated with a nutrition transition and an increase in risk factors for non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The objective of this study was to determine how the nutritional composition of the Ethiopian food supply has changed over the last 50 years and whether there is evidence of a nutrition transition. Methods: Food balance sheets for Ethiopia from 1961 to 2011 were downloaded from the FAOSTAT database and daily per capita supply for 17 commodity groupings was calculated. After appropriate coding, per capita energy and nutrient supplies were determined. Results: Per capita energy supply was 1710 kcal/d in 1961, fell to 1403 kcal/d by 1973, and increased to 2111 kcal/d in 2011. Carbohydrate was by far the greatest energy source throughout the period, ranging from 72% of energy in 1968 to 79% in 1998; however, this was mostly provided by complex carbohydrates as the contribution of sugars to energy only varied between 4.7% in 1994 and 6.7% in 2011. Energy from fat was low, ranging from 14% of energy in 1970 to 10% in 1998. Energy from protein ranged from 14% in 1962 to 11% in 1994. Per capita supplies of calcium, vitamin A, C, D, folate and other B-vitamins were insufficient and there was a low supply of animal foods. Conclusions: The Ethiopian food supply is still remarkably high in complex carbohydrates and low in sugars, fat, protein, and micronutrients. There is little evidence yet of changes that are usually associated with a nutrition transition

Anti-SU antibody responses in client-owned cats following vaccination against feline leukaemia virus with two inactivated whole-virus vaccines (Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K and Fel-O-Vax® 5)

A field study undertaken in Australia compared the antibody responses induced in client-owned cats that had been vaccinated using two inactivated whole feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) vaccines, the monovalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K and the polyvalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® 5. Serum samples from 428 FeLV-uninfected cats (118 FeLV-vaccinated and 310 FeLV-unvaccinated) were tested for anti-FeLV neutralising antibodies (NAb) using a live virus neutralisation assay to identify 378 FeLV-unexposed (NAb-negative) and 50 FeLV-exposed (NAb-positive; abortive infections) cats, following by anti-surface unit (SU) FeLV-A and FeLV-B antibody ELISA testing. An additional 42 FeLV-infected cats (28 presumptively regressively infected, 14 presumptively progressively infected) were also tested for anti-SU antibodies. NAb-positive cats displayed significantly higher anti-SU antibody ELISA responses compared to NAb-negative cats (p < 0.001). FeLV-unexposed cats (NAb-negative) that had been vaccinated less than 18 months after a previous FeLV vaccination using the monovalent vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K) displayed higher anti-SU antibody ELISA responses than a comparable group vaccinated with the polyvalent vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® 5) (p < 0.001 for both anti-FeLV-A and FeLV-B SU antibody responses). This difference in anti-SU antibody responses between cats vaccinated with the monovalent or polyvalent vaccine, however, was not observed in cats that had been naturally exposed to FeLV (NAb-positive) (p = 0.33). It was postulated that vaccination with Fel-O-Vax® 5 primed the humoral response prior to FeLV exposure, such that antibody production increased when the animal was challenged, while vaccination with Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K induced an immediate preparatory antibody response that did not quantitatively increase after FeLV exposure. These results raise questions about the comparable vaccine efficacy of the different FeLV vaccine formulations and correlates of protectio

Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas

The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon¹⁻³. With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses⁴⁻⁹. As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world’s major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve ‘health’: about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.Keywords: Ecology, Environmental scienc

The role of the pine marten in Irish squirrel population dynamics

There are two squirrel species found in Ireland. The native red squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris, and the invasive North American grey squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis. In Ireland, the UK and Italy the grey squirrel threatens the survival of the red squirrel as the effects of competition and disease from the grey squirrel almost inevitably lead to total replacement of the red squirrel population. In 2007, the results of a national squirrel survey suggested that the normally invasive grey squirrel population in the midlands of Ireland had gone into decline. Whilst occasionally grey squirrel introductions have failed elsewhere, such a decline in range has not been recorded anywhere else for this species subsequent to having established itself as an invasive population. In the 2007 report, the decline in grey squirrel range was anecdotally attributed to an increase in European pine marten, Martes martes, range and numbers. The pine marten population in Ireland reached a nadir in the early 20th century as a result of habitat loss and persecution, but the core population in the west and midlands of Ireland have recovered in recent decades. The 2007 survey recommended the theory that the pine marten population may be involved in the decline of the invasive grey squirrel\u27s range be investigated. This project serves to carry out that study by investigating the role, if any, of the European pine marten in red and grey squirrel population dynamics in Ireland. The distribution and status of all three species were examined in both the midlands of Ireland and a control region in the east, where all three species are also present but the grey squirrel range had not been reported as having gone into decline. Detailed distribution surveys of the study and control regions were carried out by means of sightings and field surveys which confirmed that the grey squirrel is now rare in approximately 9,000km(2) of its former invasive range. The distribution survey also established that the red squirrel has successfully recolonised much of this area and a live-trapping program confirmed the red squirrel population in the midlands is now in competitive release. The grey squirrel continues to thrive in other parts of the country however, including the control region in the east of the country. Results from a pine marten diet and density study suggest that the abundance of the native predator population may be a critical factor in the grey squirrel\u27s success or failure as an invasive species. Non-invasive methods of studying this elusive carnivore were also investigated, and the genotyping of remotely plucked hair samples in the study and control regions revealed the pine marten to be considerably more abundant in the midlands than the east of Ireland. Real-time PCR techniques were utilised to determine the frequency of occurrence of squirrels and other small mammals in pine marten diet and the results were compared to a sub sample of scats which were subject to traditional macro analysis. Both techniques were found to yield similar results suggesting molecular techniques are a useful tool in studying pine marten diet. The first evidence of European pine marten predating upon the North American grey squirrel is reported, however a negative correlation between pine marten and grey squirrel presence at woodland level resulted in a small sample size of scats in areas that the grey squirrel was available as a prey item. This negative correlation in distribution also suggested that the non-lethal effects of an abundant predator population may be influencing the grey squirrel\u27s ability to succeed as an invasive species in Ireland more so than direct predation itself. The possibility that pine marten scent marking may be influencing grey squirrel behaviour was also explored through a literature review and an experiment with grey squirrel sensitivity to predator odour. Red squirrel distribution at landscape level was positively correlated with that of its natural predator, and the area which the red squirrel has recolonised falls entirely within the midlands pine marten population\u27s range. The dietary study confirmed that the red squirrel is a low frequency prey item in the abundant pine marten population\u27s diet. The true relationship between the pine marten and the grey squirrel has yet to be established however, and recommendations for future studies are provided

The enemy of my enemy is my friend:native pine marten recovery reverses the decline of the red squirrel by suppressing grey squirrel populations

Electronic supplementary material is available online at https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4014001. Acknowledgements We thank Forest Enterprise Scotland and Trees for Life for support. Thanks also to the Scottish Wildlife Trust, E. Schulte, B. Priestly, K. Kortland, A. Jarrott, D. Anderson, T. Lightly, I. Cepukaite, S. Eastwood, M. Oliver, L. Currie, R. Greenwood, P. Whyatt, M. Hawkins, G. Neill, S. Willis, G. Stewart, I. Wilkinson, T. Ferrie, Luss Estates, Penicuik Estate, East and West Dunbartonshire Councils, Ballikinrain School and Dawyck Botanic Gardens.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Locating species range frontiers: a cost and efficiency comparison of citizen science and hair-tube survey methods for use in tracking an invasive squirrel

Context. Improved knowledge of changing species distributions is critically important for conservation managers in the face of increasing species invasions, habitat disturbance and climate change. Efficient monitoring of the location of advancing species invasion frontiers is especially crucial for effective species community and habitat management. Aims. To compare the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of two survey methods, a citizen science survey and a traditional hair-tube survey, in their abilities to locate the current southern invasion frontier of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in Ireland. Methods. In the citizen science survey, we collected sighting reports of the grey squirrel and its native congener, the red squirrel (S. vulgaris), from the geographic region of the invasion frontier from untrained members of the public over a 2-year period. Hair-tube surveys were carried out in 14 woodlands (>= 30 ha) in the same geographic area to test the ability of this indirect field method to identify colonising grey squirrel populations. The costs, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of each method were compared. Key results. The citizen science sighting reports resulted in the clear delineation of the southern frontier of the zone invaded by the grey squirrel. The hair-tube survey ascertained the presence of grey squirrels in 4 of 14 sites, but did not detect this species close to the invasion frontier defined by the citizen science survey. Even though the total cost of the citizen science survey was higher, it was more cost-effective and efficient on a per detection basis for the purposes of detecting the presence of grey and red squirrels. Conclusions. The citizen science survey detected invasive squirrels in sites where the hair-tube survey did not. As such, the citizen science survey provided a more comprehensive snapshot of the location of the grey squirrel invasion frontier more efficiently and cost-effectively than did traditional field techniques. Implications. In the face of increasing ecological and economic costs of biological invasions, we recommend straightforward citizen science surveys, over indirect field surveys, to managers and researchers seeking to efficiently track progressing invasions of readily observable animals cost-effectively

Locating species range frontiers: a cost and efficiency comparison of citizen science and hair-tube survey methods for use in tracking an invasive squirrel

Context. Improved knowledge of changing species distributions is critically important for conservation managers in the face of increasing species invasions, habitat disturbance and climate change. Efficient monitoring of the location of advancing species invasion frontiers is especially crucial for effective species community and habitat management. Aims. To compare the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of two survey methods, a citizen science survey and a traditional hair-tube survey, in their abilities to locate the current southern invasion frontier of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in Ireland. Methods. In the citizen science survey, we collected sighting reports of the grey squirrel and its native congener, the red squirrel (S. vulgaris), from the geographic region of the invasion frontier from untrained members of the public over a 2-year period. Hair-tube surveys were carried out in 14 woodlands (>= 30 ha) in the same geographic area to test the ability of this indirect field method to identify colonising grey squirrel populations. The costs, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of each method were compared. Key results. The citizen science sighting reports resulted in the clear delineation of the southern frontier of the zone invaded by the grey squirrel. The hair-tube survey ascertained the presence of grey squirrels in 4 of 14 sites, but did not detect this species close to the invasion frontier defined by the citizen science survey. Even though the total cost of the citizen science survey was higher, it was more cost-effective and efficient on a per detection basis for the purposes of detecting the presence of grey and red squirrels. Conclusions. The citizen science survey detected invasive squirrels in sites where the hair-tube survey did not. As such, the citizen science survey provided a more comprehensive snapshot of the location of the grey squirrel invasion frontier more efficiently and cost-effectively than did traditional field techniques. Implications. In the face of increasing ecological and economic costs of biological invasions, we recommend straightforward citizen science surveys, over indirect field surveys, to managers and researchers seeking to efficiently track progressing invasions of readily observable animals cost-effectively

Pine marten encounter histories for use in SCR analysis using oSCR package in R

Data collected in the field and processed in lab to obtain genotypes. id= pine marten id/genotype, occasion = visit (1-5), trapid = detector name, sex = f/m, session = region name, site = name of cluster in which detector was locate