The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the Context of Transnational Law

The development of exceptions in the Rules of Civil Procedure and federal statutes that apply only to litigants outside the US is explored. The Rules should not make exceptions on a blanket basis, as some proposals indicate

#MeToo: Why Now? What Next?

This Essay explores the evolution, implications, and potential of #MeToo. It begins by reviewing the inadequacies of sexual harassment law and policies that have permitted continuing abuse and that prompted the outrage that erupted in 2017. Discussion then turns to the origins of the #MeToo movement and assesses the changes that it has propelled. Analysis centers on which changes are likely to last and the concerns of fairness and inclusion that they raise. A final section considers strategies for sustaining the positive momentum of the movement and directing its efforts toward fundamental reform

Se-2 solar cells

Abstract We investigate reactively sputtered films of zirconium nitride, ZrN, for use as highly reflecting back contacts in Cu(In,Ga)Se 2 (CIGS) devices with sub-micrometer absorbers. We identify the nitrogen flow and the sputter current as the decisive parameters for the composition, and demonstrate a method for determining the nitrogen flow at which the transition from metallic to compound sputtering mode occurs for a given current. Films prepared at this working point consist of stoichiometric ZrN with a low resistivity, a high reflectance for red and infrared light, and have a fairly high sputter rate. Calculations show that the reflectance at the ZrN/CIGS interface is significantly superior to that at the standard Mo/CIGS interface

Cd and Cu interdiffusion in Cu(In,Ga)Se2/CdS hetero-interfaces

We report a detailed characterization of an industry-like prepared Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS)/CdS heterojunction by scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and photoluminescence (PL). Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) shows the presence of several regions in the CIGS layer that are Cu deprived and Cd enriched, suggesting the segregation of Cd-Se. Concurrently, the CdS layer shows Cd-deprived regions with the presence of Cu, suggesting a segregation of Cu-S. The two types of segregations are always found together, which, to the best of our knowledge, is observed for the first time. The results indicate that there is a diffusion process that replaces Cu with Cd in the CIGS layer and Cd with Cu in the CdS layer. Using a combinatorial approach we identified that this effect is independent of focused-ion beam sample preparation and of the TEM-grid. Furthermore, photoluminescence measurements before and after an HCl etch indicate a lower degree of defects in the post-etch sample, compatible with the segregates removal. We hypothesize that Cu2-xSe nanodomains react during the chemical bath process to form these segregates since the chemical reaction that dominates this process is thermodynamically favourable. These results provide important additional information about the formation of the CIGS/CdS interface.publishe

SiOx Patterned Based Substrates Implemented in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Ultrathin Solar Cells: Optimum Thickness

Interface recombination in sub-µm optoelectronics has a major detrimental impact on devices’ performance, showing the need for tailored passivation strategies to reach a technological boost. In this work, SiOx passivation based substrates were developed and integrated into ultrathin Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) solar cells. This study aims to understand the impact of a passivation strategy, which uses several SiOx layer thicknesses (3, 8, and 25 nm) integrated into high performance substrates (HPS). The experimental study is complemented with 3D Lumerical finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) and 2D Silvaco ATLAS optical and electrical simulations, respectively, to perform a decoupling of optical and electronic gains, allowing for a deep discussion on the impact of the SiOx layer thickness in the CIGS solar cell performance. This study shows that as the passivation layer thickness increases, a rise in parasitic losses is observed. Hence, a balance between beneficial passivation and optical effects with harmful architectural constraints defines a threshold thickness to attain the best solar cell performance. Analyzing their electrical parameters, the 8 nm novel SiOx based substrate achieved a light to power conversion efficiency value of 13.2 %, a 1.3 % absolute improvement over the conventional Mo substrate (without SiOx).info:eu-repo/semantics/submittedVersio

Development of a Plasmonic Light Management Architecture Integrated within an Interface Passivation Scheme for Ultrathin Solar Cells

InovSolarCells (PTDC/FISMAC/29696/2017) cofunded by FCT and the ERDF through COMPETE2020. Publisher Copyright: © 2024 The Authors. Solar RRL published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.In response to climate and resource challenges, the transition to a renewable and decentralized energy system is imperative. Ultrathin Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS)-based solar cells are compatible with such transition due to their low material usage and improved production throughput. Despite the benchmark efficiency of CIGS technology, ultrathin configurations face efficiency drops arising from increased rear interface recombination and incomplete light absorption. Dielectric passivation schemes address rear interface recombination, but achieving simultaneous electrical and optical gains is crucial for thinning down the absorber. Plasmonic nanoparticles emerge as a solution, enhancing light interaction through resonant scattering. In the proposed architecture, the nanoparticles are encapsulated within a dielectric rear passivation layer, combining effective passivation and light trapping. A controlled deposition and encapsulation of individualized nanoparticles is achieved by an optimized process flow using microfluidic devices and nanoimprint lithography. With the developed plasmonic and passivated architecture, a 3.7 mA cm−2 short-circuit current density and a 23 mV open-circuit voltage improvements are obtained, leading to an almost 2% increase in light-to-power conversion efficiency compared to a reference device. This work showcases the developed architecture potential to tackle the electrical and optical downfalls arising from the absorber thickness reduction, contributing to the dissemination of ultrathin technology.publishersversionpublishe

Cu(In,Ga)Se2 based ultrathin solar cells: the pathway from lab rigid to large scale flexible technology

For the first time, the incorporation of interface passivation structures in ultrathin Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) based solar cells is shown in a flexible lightweight stainless-steel substrate. The fabrication was based on an industry scalable lithography technique - nanoimprint lithography (NIL) - for a 15x15 cm2 dielectric layer patterning, needed to reduce optoelectronic losses at the rear interface. The nanopatterning schemes are usually developed by lithographic techniques or by processes with limited scalability and reproducibility (nanoparticle lift-off, spin-coating, etc). However, in this work the dielectric layer is patterned using NIL, a low cost, large area, high resolution, and high throughput technique. To assess the NIL performance, devices with a NIL nanopatterned dielectric layer are benchmarked against electron-beam lithography (EBL) patterning, using rigid substrates. Up to now, EBL is considered the most reliable technique for patterning laboratory samples. The device patterned by NIL shows similar light to power conversion efficiency average values compared to the EBL patterned device - 12.6 % vs 12.3 %, respectively - highlighting the NIL potential for application in the solar cell sector. Moreover, the impact of the lithographic processes, such as different etch by-products, in the rigid solar cells’ figures of merit were evaluated from an elemental point of view via X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and electrically through a Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator (SCAPS) fitting procedure. After an optimised NIL process, the device on stainless-steel achieved an average power conversion efficiency value of 11.7 % - a slightly lower value than the one obtained for the rigid approach, due to additional challenges raised by processing and handling steel substrates, even though scanning transmission electron microscopy did not show any clear evidence of impurity diffusion towards the absorber. Notwithstanding, time-resolved photoluminescence results strongly suggested the presence of additional non-radiative recombination mechanisms in the stainless-steel absorber, which were not detected in the rigid solar cells, and are compatible with elemental diffusion from the substrate. Nevertheless, bending tests on the stainless-steel device demonstrated the mechanical stability of the CIGS-based device up to 500 bending cycles.This work was funded in part by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) under Grants 2020.04564.BD, IF/00133/2015, PD/BD/142780/2018, SFRH/BD/146776/2019, UIDB/04564/2020 and UIDP/04564/2020, 2020.07073.BD, as well as through the projects NovaCell (PTDC/CTMCTM/28075/2017), CASOLEM (028917) “Correlated Analysis of Inorganic Solar Cells in and outside an Electron Microscope”, and InovSolarCells (PTDC/FISMAC/29696/2017) co-funded by FCT and the ERDF through COMPETE2020. And by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation 15 programme under the grants agreements N°. 720887 (ARCIGS-M project) and grand agreement N°.715027 (Uniting PV). The Special Research Fund (BOF) of Hasselt University is also acknowledged. P. Salomé and P. A. Fernandes would like to acknowledge FCT for the support of the project FCT UIDB/04730/2020. This work was developed within the scope of the project i3N, UIDB/50025/2020 & UIDP/50025/2020, financed by national funds through the FCT/MEC. The authors also acknowledge the support of Carlos Calaza in the fabrication for the 200 mm Si point contact stamp.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Cadmium-free CIGS mini-modules with ALD-grown Zn(O, S)-based buffer layers

We  present  the  first  results  from  our  work  on  cadmium-free  CIGS  solar  cells  and  mini-modules  on 12.5×12.5  cm2 substrates.  The  buffer  layers  in  these  cells  and  modules  consist  of  Zn(O,S)  grown  by  atomic  layer deposition (ALD) in a new home-built reactor. The CIGS absorber of the cells and modules presented in this article was deposited in our inline micro-pilot evaporator with a deposition time of 15 minutes. In this study, we focus on issues  which  are  relevant  to  the  manufacturing  of  100  cm2 sized  mini-modules  with  ALD  Zn(O,S)  buffer  layers manufactured in our lab. We have achieved independently certified aperture area efficiencies of 18.5 % for 0.5 cm2 cells and 14.7 % for a 76.8 cm2 mini-module

Cadmium-free CIGS mini-modules with ALD-grown Zn(O, S)-based buffer layers

We  present  the  first  results  from  our  work  on  cadmium-free  CIGS  solar  cells  and  mini-modules  on 12.5×12.5  cm2 substrates.  The  buffer  layers  in  these  cells  and  modules  consist  of  Zn(O,S)  grown  by  atomic  layer deposition (ALD) in a new home-built reactor. The CIGS absorber of the cells and modules presented in this article was deposited in our inline micro-pilot evaporator with a deposition time of 15 minutes. In this study, we focus on issues  which  are  relevant  to  the  manufacturing  of  100  cm2 sized  mini-modules  with  ALD  Zn(O,S)  buffer  layers manufactured in our lab. We have achieved independently certified aperture area efficiencies of 18.5 % for 0.5 cm2 cells and 14.7 % for a 76.8 cm2 mini-module