13 research outputs found
Both a Gauge and a Filter: Cognitive Modulations of Pupil Size
Over 50 years of research have established that cognitive processes influence pupil size. This has led to the widespread use of pupil size as a peripheral measure of cortical processing in psychology and neuroscience. However, the function of cortical control over the pupil remains poorly understood. Why does visual attention change the pupil light reflex? Why do mental effort and surprise cause pupil dilation? Here, we consider these functional questions as we review and synthesize two literatures on cognitive effects on the pupil: how cognition affects pupil light response and how cognition affects pupil size under constant luminance. We propose that cognition may have co-opted control of the pupil in order to filter incoming visual information to optimize it for particular goals. This could complement other cortical mechanisms through which cognition shapes visual perception
Semi-orthogonal subspaces for value mediate a tradeoff between binding and generalization
When choosing between options, we must associate their values with the action
needed to select them. We hypothesize that the brain solves this binding
problem through neural population subspaces. To test this hypothesis, we
examined neuronal responses in five reward-sensitive regions in macaques
performing a risky choice task with sequential offers. Surprisingly, in all
areas, the neural population encoded the values of offers presented on the left
and right in distinct subspaces. We show that the encoding we observe is
sufficient to bind the values of the offers to their respective positions in
space while preserving abstract value information, which may be important for
rapid learning and generalization to novel contexts. Moreover, after both
offers have been presented, all areas encode the value of the first and second
offers in orthogonal subspaces. In this case as well, the orthogonalization
provides binding. Our binding-by-subspace hypothesis makes two novel
predictions borne out by the data. First, behavioral errors should correlate
with putative spatial (but not temporal) misbinding in the neural
representation. Second, the specific representational geometry that we observe
across animals also indicates that behavioral errors should increase when
offers have low or high values, compared to when they have medium values, even
when controlling for value difference. Together, these results support the idea
that the brain makes use of semi-orthogonal subspaces to bind features
together.Comment: arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2205.0676
Individual differences in social information gathering revealed through Bayesian hierarchical models
As studies of the neural circuits underlying choice expand to include more complicated behaviors, analysis of behaviors elicited in laboratory paradigms has grown increasingly difficult. Social behaviors present a particular challenge, since inter- and intra-individual variation are expected to play key roles. However, due to limitations on data collection, studies must often choose between pooling data across all subjects or using individual subjects' data in isolation. Hierarchical models mediate between these two extremes by modeling individual subjects as drawn from a population distribution, allowing the population at large to serve as prior information about individuals' behavior. Here, we apply this method to data collected across multiple experimental sessions from a set of rhesus macaques performing a social information valuation task. We show that, while the values of social images vary markedly between individuals and between experimental sessions for the same individual, individuals also differentially value particular categories of social images. Furthermore, we demonstrate covariance between values for image categories within individuals and find evidence suggesting that magnitudes of stimulus values tend to diminish over time
Rules warp feature encoding in decision-making circuits.
We have the capacity to follow arbitrary stimulus-response rules, meaning simple policies that guide our behavior. Rule identity is broadly encoded across decision-making circuits, but there are less data on how rules shape the computations that lead to choices. One idea is that rules could simplify these computations. When we follow a rule, there is no need to encode or compute information that is irrelevant to the current rule, which could reduce the metabolic or energetic demands of decision-making. However, it is not clear if the brain can actually take advantage of this computational simplicity. To test this idea, we recorded from neurons in 3 regions linked to decision-making, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), ventral striatum (VS), and dorsal striatum (DS), while macaques performed a rule-based decision-making task. Rule-based decisions were identified via modeling rules as the latent causes of decisions. This left us with a set of physically identical choices that maximized reward and information, but could not be explained by simple stimulus-response rules. Contrasting rule-based choices with these residual choices revealed that following rules (1) decreased the energetic cost of decision-making; and (2) expanded rule-relevant coding dimensions and compressed rule-irrelevant ones. Together, these results suggest that we use rules, in part, because they reduce the costs of decision-making through a distributed representational warping in decision-making circuits
Individual differences in social information gathering revealed through Bayesian hierarchical models
As studies of the neural circuits underlying choice expand to include more complicated behaviors, analysis of behaviors elicited in laboratory paradigms has grown increasingly difficult. Social behaviors present a particular challenge, since inter- and intra-individual variation are expected to play key roles. However, due to limitations on data collection, studies must often choose between pooling data across all subjects or using individual subjects' data in isolation. Hierarchical models mediate between these two extremes by modeling individual subjects as drawn from a population distribution, allowing the population at large to serve as prior information about individuals' behavior. Here, we apply this method to data collected across multiple experimental sessions from a set of rhesus macaques performing a social information valuation task. We show that, while the values of social images vary markedly between individuals and between experimental sessions for the same individual, individuals also differentially value particular categories of social images. Furthermore, we demonstrate covariance between values for image categories within individuals and find evidence suggesting that magnitudes of stimulus values tend to diminish over time
Tonic exploration governs both flexibility and lapses.
In many cognitive tasks, lapses (spontaneous errors) are tacitly dismissed as the result of nuisance processes like sensorimotor noise, fatigue, or disengagement. However, some lapses could also be caused by exploratory noise: randomness in behavior that facilitates learning in changing environments. If so, then strategic processes would need only up-regulate (rather than generate) exploration to adapt to a changing environment. This view predicts that more frequent lapses should be associated with greater flexibility because these behaviors share a common cause. Here, we report that when rhesus macaques performed a set-shifting task, lapse rates were negatively correlated with perseverative error frequency across sessions, consistent with a common basis in exploration. The results could not be explained by local failures to learn. Furthermore, chronic exposure to cocaine, which is known to impair cognitive flexibility, did increase perseverative errors, but, surprisingly, also improved overall set-shifting task performance by reducing lapse rates. We reconcile these results with a state-switching model in which cocaine decreases exploration by deepening attractor basins corresponding to rule states. These results support the idea that exploratory noise contributes to lapses, affecting rule-based decision-making even when it has no strategic value, and suggest that one key mechanism for regulating exploration may be the depth of rule states
Subspace orthogonalization as a mechanism for binding values to space
When choosing between options, we must solve an important binding problem.
The values of the options must be associated with other information, including
the action needed to select them. We hypothesized that the brain solves this
binding problem through use of distinct population subspaces. We examined
responses of single neurons in five value-sensitive regions in rhesus macaques
performing a risky choice task. In all areas, neurons encoded the values of
both possible options, but used semi-orthogonal coding subspaces associated
with left and right options, which served to link options to their positions in
space. We also observed a covariation between subspace orthogonalization and
behavior: trials with less orthogonalized subspaces were associated with
greater likelihood of choosing the less valued option. These semi-orthogonal
subspaces arose from a combination of linear and non-linear mixed selective
neurons. By decomposing the neural geometry, we show this combination of
selectivity achieves a code that balances binding/separation and
generalization. These results support the hypothesis that binding operations
serve to convert high-dimensional codes to multiple low-dimensional neural
subspaces to flexibly solve decision problems.Comment: 45 pages, 4 figure