The macrophage in HIV-1 infection: From activation to deactivation?

Macrophages play a crucial role in innate and adaptative immunity in response to microorganisms and are an important cellular target during HIV-1 infection. Recently, the heterogeneity of the macrophage population has been highlighted. Classically activated or type 1 macrophages (M1) induced in particular by IFN-γ display a pro-inflammatory profile. The alternatively activated or type 2 macrophages (M2) induced by Th-2 cytokines, such as IL-4 and IL-13 express anti-inflammatory and tissue repair properties. Finally IL-10 has been described as the prototypic cytokine involved in the deactivation of macrophages (dM). Since the capacity of macrophages to support productive HIV-1 infection is known to be modulated by cytokines, this review shows how modulation of macrophage activation by cytokines impacts the capacity to support productive HIV-1 infection. Based on the activation status of macrophages we propose a model starting with M1 classically activated macrophages with accelerated formation of viral reservoirs in a context of Th1 and proinflammatory cytokines. Then IL-4/IL-13 alternatively activated M2 macrophages will enter into the game that will stop the expansion of the HIV-1 reservoir. Finally IL-10 deactivation of macrophages will lead to immune failure observed at the very late stages of the HIV-1 disease

On the Rise of the Proton Structure Function F2_2 Towards Low x

A measurement of the derivative (d ln F_2 / d lnx)_(Q^2)= -lambda(x,Q^2) of the proton structure function F_2 is presented in the low x domain of deeply inelastic positron-proton scattering. For 5*10^(-5)=1.5 GeV^2, lambda(x,Q^2) is found to be independent of x and to increase linearly with ln(Q^2)

Insulin-like growth factors and related proteins in plasma and cerebrospinal fluids of HIV-positive individuals

BACKGROUND: Clinically significant dysregulation of the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) family proteins occurs in HIV-infected individuals, but the details including whether the deficiencies in IGFs contribute to CNS dysfunction are unknown. METHODS: We measured the levels of IGF1, IGF2, IGFBP1, IGFBP2, and IGF2 receptor (IGF2R) in matching plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples of 107 HIV+ individuals from CNS HIV Antiretroviral Therapy Effects Research (CHARTER) and analyzed their associations with demographic and disease characteristics, as well as levels of several soluble inflammatory mediators (TNFα, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IP-10, MCP-1, and progranulin). We also determined whether IGF1 or IGF2 deficiency is associated with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) and whether the levels of soluble IGF2R (an IGF scavenging receptor, which we also have found to be a cofactor for HIV infection in vitro) correlate with HIV viral load (VL). RESULTS: There was a positive correlation between the levels of IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) and those of inflammatory mediators: between plasma IGFBP1 and IL-17 (β coefficient 0.28, P = 0.009), plasma IGFBP2 and IL-6 (β coefficient 0.209, P = 0.021), CSF IGFBP1 and TNFα (β coefficient 0.394, P < 0.001), and CSF IGFBP2 and TNF-α (β coefficient 0.14, P < 0.001). As IGFBPs limit IGF availability, these results suggest that inflammation is a significant factor that modulates IGF protein expression/availability in the setting of HIV infection. However, there was no significant association between HAND and the reduced levels of plasma IGF1, IGF2, or CSF IGF1, suggesting a limited power of our study. Interestingly, plasma IGF1 was significantly reduced in subjects on non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) compared to protease inhibitor-based therapy (174.1 ± 59.8 vs. 202.8 ± 47.3 ng/ml, P = 0.008), suggesting a scenario in which ART regimen-related toxicity can contribute to HAND. Plasma IGF2R levels were positively correlated with plasma VL (β coefficient 0.37, P = 0.021) and inversely correlated with current CD4+ T cell counts (β coefficient −0.04, P = 0.021), supporting our previous findings in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results strongly implicate (1) an inverse relationship between inflammation and IGF growth factor availability and the contribution of IGF deficiencies to HAND and (2) the role of IGF2R in HIV infection and as a surrogate biomarker for HIV VL. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0288-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

Efeito de métodos de irrigação e do uso de cobertura vegetal sobre o cultivo de repolho em São Luís-MA Effect of irrigation methods and mulching on the cabbage in São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil

Com o objetivo de desenvolver mecanismos que minimizem o estresse da cultura de repolho (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) provocado pela alta temperatura do ar em São Luís, MA, instalou-se um experimento em um Argissolo Arênico, no qual foram testados irrigação por aspersão em dois períodos de irrigação diários (às 12 e 18 horas), com e sem cobertura vegetal sobre o solo, e irrigação por sulco com e sem cobertura vegetal sobre o solo. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, com seis repetições. Na irrigação por aspersão, o horário de irrigação e o uso de cobertura vegetal no solo não afetaram o desenvolvimento das cabeças de repolho (compacidade, comprimento do coração e a massa fresca). Na irrigação por sulco, a compacidade e a massa das cabeças de repolho foram significativamente afetados pelo uso de cobertura no solo, sendo que, nesse sistema a ausência de cobertura no solo resultou em repolhos com cabeça pouco firme e baixa produção de massa fresca (300.9 g), o que originou uma baixa produtividade (7.5 Mg.ha-1). Nas condições do experimento, a irrigação por sulco em solo coberto e a irrigação por aspersão, em solo coberto ou não, possibilitaram melhor desenvolvimento das plantas de repolho.<br>In order to develop techniques that minimize heat stress of cabbage crop (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) provoked by high air temperatures in São Luís (MA), Brazil, an experiment was carried out in a sandy Alfisol. We compared irrigation by sprinkler in two daily periods of irrigation (12:00 and 18:00 hours) and with and without mulching with furrow irrigation with and without mulching in a completely randomized design with six replications. The schedule of irrigation and the use of mulch didn't affect the development of the cabbage heads in the irrigation by sprinkler treatments, as these factors didn't significantly affect the compactness, the length of the heart or the mass of the cabbage heads. By contrast, in furrow irrigation the compactness and the mass of the cabbage heads were significantly affected by mulching, the absence of mulching resulted in not very firm heads and low fresh mass (mean of 300 g), and a low productivity (7.5 Mg.ha-1). The furrow irrigation in covered soil and sprinkle in covered or uncovered soil didn't allow better development of the cabbage plants