Does the morphological fit between flowers and pollinators affect pollen deposition? An experimental test in a buzz-pollinated species with anther dimorphism

Some pollination systems, such as buzz-pollination, are associated with floral morphologies that require a close physical interaction between floral sexual organs and insect visitors. In these systems, a pollinator's size relative to the flower may be an important feature determining whether the visitor touches both male and female sexual organs and thus transfers pollen between plants efficiently. To date, few studies have addressed whether in fact the “fit” between flower and pollinator influences pollen transfer, particularly among buzz-pollinated species. Here we use Solanum rostratum, a buzz-pollinated plant with dimorphic anthers and mirror-image flowers, to investigate whether the morphological fit between the pollinator's body and floral morphology influences pollen deposition. We hypothesized that when the size of the pollinator matches the separation between the sexual organs in a flower, more pollen should be transferred to the stigma than when the visitor is either too small or too big relative to the flower. To test this hypothesis, we exposed flowers of S.rostratum with varying levels of separation between sexual organs, to bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) of different sizes. We recorded the number of visits received, pollen deposition, and fruit and seed production. We found higher pollen deposition when bees were the same size or bigger than the separation between anther and stigma within a flower. We found a similar, but not statistically significant pattern for fruit set. In contrast, seed set was more likely to occur when the size of the flower exceeded the size of the bee, suggesting that other postpollination processes may be important in translating pollen receipt to seed set. Our results suggest that the fit between flower and pollinator significantly influences pollen deposition in this buzz-pollinated species. We speculate that in buzz-pollinated species where floral morphology and pollinators interact closely, variation in the visitor's size may determine whether it acts mainly as a pollinator or as a pollen thief (i.e., removing pollen rewards but contributing little to pollen deposition and fertilization)

Division of labour within flowers: heteranthery, a floral strategy to reconcile contrasting pollen fates

In many nectarless flowering plants, pollen serves as both the carrier of male gametes and as food for pollinators. This can generate an evolutionary conflict if the use of pollen as food by pollinators reduces the number of gametes available for cross-fertilization. Heteranthery, the production of two or more stamen types by individual flowers reduces this conflict by allowing different stamens to specialize in ‘pollinating’ and ‘feeding’ functions. We used experimental studies of Solanum rostratum (Solanaceae) and theoretical models to investigate this ‘division of labour’ hypothesis. Flight cage experiments with pollinating bumble bees (Bombus impatiens) demonstrated that although feeding anthers are preferentially manipulated by bees, pollinating anthers export more pollen to other flowers. Evolutionary stability analysis of a model of pollination by pollen consumers indicated that heteranthery evolves when bees consume more pollen than should optimally be exchanged for visitation services, particularly when pollinators adjust their visitation according to the amount of pollen collected

Surviving in isolation: genetic variation, bottlenecks and reproductive strategies in the Canarian endemic Limonium macrophyllum (Plumbaginaceae)

Oceanic archipelagos are typically rich in endemic taxa, because they offer ideal conditions for diversification and speciation in isolation. One of the most remarkable evolutionary radiations on the Canary Islands comprises the 16 species included in Limonium subsection Nobiles, all of which are subject to diverse threats, and legally protected. Since many of them are single-island endemics limited to one or a few populations, there exists a risk that a loss of genetic variation might limit their longterm survival. In this study, we used eight newly developed microsatellite markers to characterize the levels of genetic variation and inbreeding in L. macrophyllum, a species endemic to the North-east of Tenerife that belongs to Limonium subsection Nobiles. We detected generally low levels of genetic variation over all populations (HT = 0.363), and substantial differentiation among populations (FST = 0.188;RST = 0.186) coupled with a negligible degree of inbreeding (F = 0.042). Obligate outcrossing may have maintained L. macrophyllum relatively unaffected by inbreeding despite the species’ limited dispersal ability and the genetic bottlenecks likely caused by a prolonged history of grazing. Although several factors still constitute a risk for the conservation of L. macrophyllum, the lack of inbreeding and the recent positive demographic trends observed in the populations of this species are factors that favour its future persistence