Women’s empowerment and intra-household gender dynamics and practices around sheep and goat production in South East Kenya

Small ruminant production facets like decision-making, ownership, labour allocation, access to- and control over assets are gendered. This study investigates intra-household gender dynamics and practices around sheep and goat production among smallholder farmers in South East region of Kenya. A quantitative study was conducted on 358 dual-headed (married) households to generate gender- disaggregated data on ownership, decision-making and labour allocation around small ruminant production. Qualitative data was collected through focused group discussions to bring out the community perspectives. From the findings, the average number of small ruminants owned by the households as reported by men was slightly higher than women. The average number of small ruminants solely owned by men was significantly higher than by women. Men reported a relatively higher number of jointly owned small ruminants compared to women. More women than men reported that they could give as a gift, sell-off and slaughter jointly owned small ruminants without consulting their spouses. Small ruminants were considered the most important livestock asset in supporting a household’s livelihood by relatively more women than men. Men had more decision-making autonomy over jointly owned small ruminants compared to women. Production tasks around small ruminants such as feeding, watering, selling milk and cleaning housing structures were mostly performed by the women. Qualitative data identified men as the de facto owners of small ruminants with a higher power position in making the important production decisions. The study offers three implications on the design of livestock interventions to empower women, the interventions should ensure that; 1) women are not just owners of livestock assets but also share power and decision-making rights in all aspects of production, 2) production labour is shared equitably between men and women and, 3) women access benefits from livestock production even when animals are owned by men.Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF)Global Affairs Canada (GAC

Presence and distribution of mosquito larvae predators and factors influencing their abundance along the Mara River, Kenya and Tanzania

Among all the malaria controlling measures, biological control of mosquito larvae may be the cheapest and easiest to implement. This study investigated baseline predation of immature mosquitoes by macroinvertebrate predators along the Mara River, determined the diversity of predators and mosquito larvae habitats and the range of their adaptive capacity to water physico-chemical parameters. Between July and August 2011, sampling sites (n=39) along the Mara River were selected and investigated for the presence of macroinvertebrate predators and mosquito larvae. The selected sampling sites were geocoded and each dipped 20 times using standard mosquito larvae dipper to sample mosquito larvae, while a D-frame dip net was used to capture the macroinvertebrate predators. Water physico-chemical parameters (dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, conductivity, salinity and turbidity) were taken in situ at access points, while hardness and alkalinity were measured titrimetically. The influence of macroinvertebrate predator occurrence was correlated with mosquito larvae and water quality parameters using Generalized Linear Model (GLM). Predators (n=297) belonging to 3 orders of Hemiptera (54.2%), Odonata (22.9%) and Coleoptera (22.9%), and mosquito larvae (n=4001) belonging to 10 species, which included An.gambiae s.l (44.9%), Culex spp. (34.8%) and An. coustani complex (13.8%), An. maculipalpis (3.6%), An. phaorensis (1.2%), An. funestus group (0.5%), An. azaniae (0.4%), An. hamoni (0.3%), An. christyi (0.3%), An. ardensis (0.08%), An. faini (0.07%), An. sergentii (0.05%) and 0.05% of Aedes mosquito larvae which were not identified to species level, due to lack of an appropriate key, were captured from different habitats along the Mara river. It was established that invasion of habitats by the macroinvertebrate predators were partially driven by the presence of mosquito larvae (p < 0.001), and the prevailing water physico-chemical parameters (DO, temperature, and turbidity, p <0.001). Understanding abiotic and biotic factors which favour mosquitoes and macroinveterbrate co-occurrence may contribute to the control of malaria

Impact of RTS,S/AS02A and RTS,S/AS01B on Genotypes of P. falciparum in Adults Participating in a Malaria Vaccine Clinical Trial

Objective:RTS,S, a candidate vaccine for malaria, is a recombinant protein expressed in yeast containing part of the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) sequence of 3D7 strain of Plasmodium falciparum linked to the hepatitis B surface antigen in a hybrid protein. The RTS,S antigen is formulated with GSK Biologicals\u27 proprietary Adjuvant Systems AS02A or AS01B. A recent trial of the RTS,S/AS02A and RTS,S/AS01B vaccines evaluated safety, immunogenicity and impact on the development of parasitemia of the two formulations. Parasite isolates from this study were used to determine the molecular impact of RTS,S/AS02A and RTS,S/AS01B on the multiplicity of infection (MOI) and the csp allelic characteristics of subsequent parasitemias.Design:The distribution of csp sequences and the MOI of the infecting strains were examined at baseline and in break-through infections from vaccinated individuals and from those receiving a non-malarial vaccine.Setting:The study was conducted in Kombewa District, western Kenya.Participants:Semi-immune adults from the three study arms provided isolates at baseline and during break-through infections.Outcome:Parasite isolates used for determining MOI and divergence of csp T cell&ndash;epitopes were 191 at baseline and 87 from break-through infections.Results:Grouping recipients of RTS,S/AS01A and RTS,S/AS02B together, vaccine recipients identified as parasite-positive by microscopy contained significantly fewer parasite genotypes than recipients of the rabies vaccine comparator (median in pooled RTS,S groups: 3 versus 4 in controls, P = 0.0313). When analyzed separately, parasitaemic individuals in the RTS,S/AS01B group, but not the RTS,S/AS02A group, were found to have significantly fewer genotypes than the comparator group. Two individual amino acids found in the vaccine construct (Q339 in Th2R and D371 in Th3R) were observed to differ in incidence between vaccine and comparator groups but in different directions; parasites harboring Q339 were less common among pooled RTS,S/AS vaccine recipients than among recipients of rabies vaccine, whereas parasites with D371 were more common among the RTS,S/AS groups.Conclusions:It is concluded that both RTS,S/AS vaccines reduce multiplicity of infection. Our results do not support the hypothesis that RTS,S/AS vaccines elicit preferential effects against pfcsp alleles with sequence similarity to the 3D7 pfcsp sequence employed in the vaccine construct

Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND:Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales cause infections that often manifest as undifferentiated fevers that are not easy to distinguish from other causes of acute febrile illnesses clinically. This is partly attributed to difficulty in laboratory confirmation since convalescent sera, specific diagnostic reagents, and the required expertise may not be readily available. As a result, a number of tick-borne zoonoses are underappreciated resulting in unnecessary morbidity, mortality and huge economic loses. In Iran, a significant proportion of human infectious diseases are tick-borne, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that tick-borne zoonoses are widespread but underreported in the country. Epidemiological review is therefore necessary to aid in the effective control and prevention of tick-borne zonooses in Iran. The aim of this review is to provide an in-depth and comprehensive overview of anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, spotted fever group rickettsioses and coxiellosis in Iran. METHODS:Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, all relevant publications on tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran were searched using a number of search terms. The search was confined to authentic resources from repositories of popular data bases among them PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, SpringerLink and SCOPUS. The search items included peer reviewed journals, books and book chapters published between 1996 and 2017. RESULTS:A total of 1 205 scientific publications and reports were sourced, of which 63 met the search criteria and were reviewed. Of the 63 articles reviewed, 36 (57.1%) reported on coxiellosis, 15 (23.8%) on anaplasmosis, 11 (17.5%) on ehrlichiosis and 1(1.6%) on spotted fever group rickettsiae in a large scale study involving four countries, among them Iran. The existence of tick-borne pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales was confirmed by molecular, serological and microscopic techniques conducted on samples obtained from sheep, cattle, goats, camels, poultry, animal products (milk and eggs), dogs, ticks and even human subjects in different parts of the country; pointing to a countrywide distribution. DISCUSSION:Based on the review, coxiellosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, and SFG rickettsiae can be categorized as emerging tick-borne zoonotic diseases in Iran given the presence of their causiative agents (C. burnetii, A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. bovis, A. ovis, A. central, E. canis, E. ewingii, E. chaffeensis and R. conorii) collectively reported in a variety of domestic animals, animal products, arthropods and human beings drawn from 22 provinces in Iran. CONCLUSION:Given the asymptomatic nature of some of these zoonoses, there is a high likelihood of silent transmission to humans in many parts of the country, which should be considered a public health concern. Presently, information on the transmission intensity of tick-borne zoonoses caused by pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales to humans and its public health impact in Iran is scanty

Effects of water physico-chemical parameters on tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) growth in earthen ponds in Teso North Sub-County, Busia County

Abstract Small-scale fish farmers in developing countries are faced with challenges owing to their limited information on aquaculture management. Nile tilapia farmers in Teso North Sub-County recorded lower yields than expected in 2009 despite having been provided with required inputs. Water quality was suspected to be the key factor responsible for the low yields. This study sought to assess the effects of earthen pond water physico-chemical parameters on the growth of Nile tilapia in six earthen fish ponds under semi-intensive culture system in Teso North Sub-County. The study was longitudinal in nature with pond water and fish being the units of analysis. Systematic sampling was used to select five ponds while a control pond was purposively selected based on its previously high harvest. Four ponds were fed by surface flow and two by underground water. Each pond was fertilized and stocked with 900 fry of averagely 1.4 g and 4.4 cm. Physico-chemical parameters were measured in-situ using a multi-parameter probe. Sixty fish samples were randomly obtained from each pond fortnightly for four months using a 10 mm mesh size and measured, weighed and returned into the pond. Mean range of physico-chemical parameters were: dissolved oxygen (DO) 4.86–10.53 mg/l, temperature 24-26 °C, pH 6.1–8.3, conductivity 35–87 μS/cm and ammonia 0.01–0.3 mg/l. Temperature (p = 0.012) and conductivity (p = 0.0001) levels varied significantly between ponds. Overall Specific Growth Rate ranged between 1.8% (0.1692 g/day) and 3.8% (1.9 g/day). Ammonia, DO and pH in the ponds were within the optimal levels for growth of tilapia, while temperature and conductivity were below optimal levels. As temperature and DO increased, growth rate of tilapia increased. However, increase in conductivity, pH and ammonia decreased fish growth rate. Temperature and DO ranging between 27 and 30 °C and 5–23 mg/l, respectively, and SGR of 3.8%/day and above are recommended for higher productivity

Characterization of indigenous chicken production and related constraints: Insights from smallholder households in rural Kenya

Indigenous chickens (IC) contribute significantly to nutrition and socioeconomic wellbeing of rural households. However, despite their potential, production remains low. Attempts to improve IC production among smallholder farmers in Makueni county, Eastern Kenya have achieved little success due to a variety of constraints. This paper explores IC production characteristics and compares the ranks assigned to production and marketing constraints across geographic regions and in male and female-headed households. A descriptive quantitative household survey of 1217 respondents drawn from IC rearing households was conducted and the results integrated with qualitative findings from 22 informants. Results showed an average flock size of 14.9 ± 15.94 IC per household, with female- headed households having relatively fewer chicken than male-headed households. However, relatively more chicken (15.9 ± 18.9) were lost per household during the last disease outbreak compared to the number kept at the time of study. Production system was largely free-range in nature with minimal provision of supplementary feeds. Disease (1.13±0.5), predation (3.16±1.9) and low market prices (3.89±1.9) were three top ranked (Mean Rank±SD) constraints in that order. Lack of capital, high cost of inputs, poor access to extension services and poor access to knowledge ranked significantly higher in female-headed households and in remote areas, while low market price ranked higher in male-headed households. Failure to agree on the selling price was the major constraint to marketing, while rejection of IC due to diseases, inability to agree on selling price and rejection due to size ranked higher in female-headed households compared to male-headed households. Interventions modeled towards improving biosecurity measures to curb diseases, financial empowerment and facilitating access to markets for smallholder farmers should be prioritized

Effects of Land Use Types on the Levels of Microbial Contamination Based on Total Coliform and Escherischia coli counts on the Mara River, East Africa

The effects of land use types on levels of microbial contamination based on total coliforms and E. coli (faecal coliform) levels was investigated in the Mara River system, Kenya and Tanzania. Water samples were taken from five sampling sites with different land uses and the Most Probable Number (MPN) method used to determine the total coliforms. A biochemical test was done and the proportions of E. coli bacteria given per study site. The mean concentration of total coliforms was lowest at Silibwet Bridge and highest at Kirumi Bridge. However, counts of E. coli were highest at an urban site (Bomet Bridge) and lowest at a swamp site (Kirumi Bridge). Overall, the proportion (40.9%) of Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) broth plates that produced E. coli in the study sites was higher than the WHO recommended standards of 0% per 100 ml in potable water. The results show that sections of the river with most human activity and inappropriate types of land-use contributed to high levels of coliform bacteria, particularly E. coli. This may indicate the existence of point sources of faecal contamination along the Mara River and corrective measures should be taken to control them.Keywords: E. coli, faecal coliform bacteria, land use type, most probable number, Mara River

Effect of climatic variability on malaria trends in Baringo County, Kenya

Abstract Background Malaria transmission in arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya such as Baringo County, is seasonal and often influenced by climatic factors. Unravelling the relationship between climate variables and malaria transmission dynamics is therefore instrumental in developing effective malaria control strategies. The main aim of this study was to describe the effects of variability of rainfall, maximum temperature and vegetation indices on seasonal trends of malaria in selected health facilities within Baringo County, Kenya. Methods Climate variables sourced from the International Research Institute (IRI)/Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) climate database and malaria cases reported in 10 health facilities spread across four ecological zones (riverine, lowland, mid-altitude and highland) between 2004 and 2014 were subjected to a time series analysis. A negative binomial regression model with lagged climate variables was used to model long-term monthly malaria cases. The seasonal Mann–Kendall trend test was then used to detect overall monotonic trends in malaria cases. Results Malaria cases increased significantly in the highland and midland zones over the study period. Changes in malaria prevalence corresponded to variations in rainfall and maximum temperature. Rainfall at a time lag of 2 months resulted in an increase in malaria transmission across the four zones while an increase in temperature at time lags of 0 and 1 month resulted in an increase in malaria cases in the riverine and highland zones, respectively. Conclusion Given the existence of a time lag between climatic variables more so rainfall and peak malaria transmission, appropriate control measures can be initiated at the onset of short and after long rains seasons

Functional Promoter Haplotypes of Interleukin-18 Condition Susceptibility to Severe Malarial Anemia and Childhood Mortality ▿

Severe malarial anemia (SMA) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children residing in regions where Plasmodium falciparum transmission is holoendemic. Although largely unexplored in children with SMA, interleukin-18 (IL-18) is important for regulating innate and acquired immunity in inflammatory and infectious diseases. As such, we selected two functional single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IL-18 promoter (−137G→C [rs187238] and −607C→A [rs1946518]) whose haplotypes encompass significant genetic variation due to the presence of strong linkage disequilibrium among these variants. The relationship between the genotypes/haplotypes, SMA (hemoglobin [Hb], <5.0 g/dl], and longitudinal clinical outcomes were then investigated in Kenyan children (n = 719). Multivariate logistic regression analyses controlling for age, gender, sickle cell trait, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, HIV-1, and bacteremia revealed that carriage of the −607AA genotype was associated with protection against SMA (odds ratio [OR] = 0.440 [95% confidence interval {CI} = 0.21 to 0.90], P = 0.031) in children with acute infection. In contrast, carriers of the −137G/−607C (GC) haplotype had increased susceptibility to SMA (OR = 2.050 [95% CI = 1.04 to 4.05], P = 0.039). Measurement of IL-18 gene expression in peripheral blood leukocytes demonstrated that elevated IL-18 transcripts were associated with reduced hemoglobin concentrations (ρ = −0.293, P = 0.010) and that carriers of the “susceptible” GC haplotype had elevated IL-18 transcripts (P = 0.026). Longitudinal investigation of clinical outcomes over a 3-year follow-up period revealed that carriers of the rare CC haplotype (∼1% frequency) had 5.76 times higher mortality than noncarriers (P = 0.001). Results presented here demonstrate that IL-18 promoter haplotypes that condition elevated IL-18 gene products during acute infection are associated with increased risk of SMA. Furthermore, carriage of the rare CC haplotype significantly increases the risk of childhood mortality