Fish remains from the Formative Period (1000 BC-AD 400) of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia: Zooarchaeology and taphonomy

Abstract This paper presents a detailed zooarchaeological study of fish remains from the site of Kala Uyuni, Bolivia. The fish remains of 31 flotation samples from different archaeological contexts and dated to the Formative Period (1000 BC-AD 400) are described in terms of frequency, weight, taxa distribution, sizes, skeletal representations, and exposure to heat. The results confirm the importance of fish in the diet of the inhabitants of the site and provide insights about the particularities of their exploitation, consumption, and differential discard across the site throughout time. A strong decline in the procurement and consumption of fish is observed for the Late Formative which seems to be a consequence of both environmental and social processes. Published by Elsevier Ltd

ENSAMBLES DE AVES DE LOS BOSQUES ENDEMICOS DE POLYLEPIS PACENSIS EN BOLIVIA

Resumen ∙ Los bosques de Polylepis pacensis son endémicos de Bolivia y se distribuyen en los departamentos de La Paz (inmediaciones al nevado Illimani, Quime e Inquisivi) y Cochabamba (Cotacajes). En este estudio, se evaluó el ensamble de aves en cuatro fragmentos de bosque de P. pacensis ubicados en las faldas del nevado Illimani, La Paz, Bolivia. En estos fragmentos de bosque se observaron 31 especies de aves, incluyendo dos especies endémicas de Bolivia, Colibrí Negrito (Aglaeactis pamela) y Pinchaflor Carbonero (Diglossa carbonaria), y dos especies fuertemente especializadas a bosques de Polylepis, Tijeral de Yánac (Leptasthenura yanacensis) y Conirrostro Gigante (Conirostrum binghami). Los bosques de Polylepis pacensis están altamente amenazados por actividades humanas como quema, extracción de leña y agricultura; las cuales podrían estar causando la deforestación y degradación de este importante hábitat para las aves. Es crucial implementar programas de conservación que incluyan la participación activa de la población local.Abstract ∙ Bird assemblages in endemic Polylepis pacensis woodlands in Bolivia Polylepis pacensis woodlands are endemic to Bolivia, distributed in La Paz (near Illimani, Quime, and Inquisivi) and Cochabamba (Cotacajes) departments. In this study, we evaluated the bird assemblages of four fragments of P. pacensis woodlands located in the foothills of nevado Illimani, La Paz, Bolivia. In these woodlands, we recorded 31 bird species, including two endemic species of Bolivia, Black-hooded Sunbeam (Aglaeactis pamela) and Grey-bellied Flowerpiercer (Diglossa carbonaria), and two species strongly specialized to Polylepis woodlands, Tawny Tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura yanacensis) and Giant Conebill (Conirostrum binghami). Polylepis pacensis woodlands are highly threatened by human activities, such as burning, logging and agriculture; which may be causing of deforestation and degradation of this important habitat for bird species. It is crucial to implement conservation programs involving the active participation of local people

Taxonomic review of the genus Polylepis. Implications for ecological studies, conservation and restoration

Según los diversos tratamientos taxonómicos, el número de especies del género Polylepis oscila entre 33 y 28 especies. Sin embargo, hasta el momento no se pudieron delimitar claramente las especies de este género. Es difícil definir sus orígenes evolutivos y conocer los procesos de especiación. Esta complejidad obedecería a distintos procesos que actúan de forma independiente y sinérgica dependiendo del grupo de especies: diferenciación relativamente reciente, poliploidía, hibridación y el aparente rol del ser humano en su distribución. En este artículo realizamos una revisión de la situación taxonómica actual del género Polylepis. Proponemos 28 especies e incluimos 2 nuevas especies descriptas para Perú y una especie (P. tomentella) con tres subespecies. Además, discutimos los vacíos en el conocimiento y proponemos estrategias de investigación que permitan mejorar la delimitación de las especies. A fin de proveer una estructura taxonómica dentro de los estudios y para que los datos obtenidos constituyan un aporte a los procesos de conservación de estos bosques, taxónomos y conservacionistas debemos trabajar en conjunto para delimitar las unidades de conservación que eviten ambigüedades y para, de esta manera, definir estrategias claras.The number of species in the genus Polylepis has changed, according to the systematic treatments, from 33 to 28; however, until now there is not a clear species delimitation. It has been complicated to define evolutionary origins and understand speciation. This complexity may be the result of different processes acting independently or interacting: recent radiation, poliploidy, hibridization and the human intervention in its distribution, depending of the species group. In this article, we revised the taxonomic status of the genus Polylepis. Twenty-eight species are proposed, with the inclusion of two new species for Perú and one species (P. tomentella) with three subespecies. In addition, gaps of knowledge are analyzed and strategies of research are proposed to improve species delimitation. Incorporating a taxonomic structure could generate new insights to conservation, restoration and management projects; taxonomists and conservationist need to work together to define conservation units to avoid ambiguities and define new strategies

The Rise and Fall of Wiñaymarka: Rethinking Cultural and Environmental Interactions in the Southern Basin of Lake Titicaca

Investigations of how past human societies managed during times of major climate change can inform our understanding of potential human responses to ongoing environmental change. In this study, we evaluate the impact of environmental variation on human communities over the last four millennia in the southern Lake Titicaca basin of the Andes, known as Lake Wiñaymarka. Refined paleoenvironmental reconstructions from new diatom-based reconstructions of lake level together with archaeological evidence of animal and plant resource use from sites on the Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia, reveal frequent climate and lake-level changes within major cultural phases. We posit that climate fluctuations alone do not explain major past social and political transformations but instead that a highly dynamic environment contributed to the development of flexible and diverse subsistence practices by the communities in the Titicaca Basin

Reproductive phenology of queñua (Polylepis incarum, Rosaceae) during an annual cycle in the mesophytic puna of La Paz, Bolivia

En el presente estudio se evaluó la fenología de la queñua (Polylepis incarum, Rosaceae) durante un ciclo anual en la puna mesofítica de La Paz, Bolivia. Esta especie es endémica de la cuenca del Lago Titicaca y, al igual que otras especies del género, P. incarum está categorizada como En Peligro para Bolivia debido a actividades antrópicas como la extracción de leña y la expansión de cultivos. Durante un año (marzo 2015 - febrero 2016) se realizaron evaluaciones mensuales en un parche de bosque en la comunidad de Kopacati, departamento de La Paz, Bolivia. Los objetivos del estudio fueron identificar las épocas de floración y fructificación, y relacionar el éxito reproductivo con el tamaño de la planta y con factores ambientales. P. incarum produce botones florales entre julio y agosto. La producción de flores en estado femenino se produce entre julio y noviembre, y la de flores en estado masculino, entre julio y octubre. La mayor producción de frutos inmaduros ocurrió a partir de noviembre; los frutos alcanzaron la madurez entre de diciembre y enero. Tanto la precipitación como la temperatura mostraron una influencia significativa en la producción de flores y frutos. El diámetro a la altura del pecho (DAP) fue el único carácter alométrico que influyó de manera significativa en la producción de flores y de frutos. No se detectaron diferencias significativas en la producción de flores y frutos entre árboles y arbustos. Los patrones fenológicos informados para esta especie son similares a los reportados para P. tomentella y P. besseri. Los resultados de este trabajo contribuyen al conocimiento de la biología reproductiva de Polylepis incarum y a la promoción de programas de conservación y reforestación de la especie.In this study, the phenology of queñua (Polylepis incarum, Rosaceae) was evaluated during an annual cycle in the mesophytic puna of La Paz. The species is endemic to the Lake Titicaca basin. Like other species of the genus Polylepis, P. incarum is categorized as Endangered for Bolivia due to anthropic activities as firewood extraction and crop expansion. During one year (March 2015 - February 2016), we conducted monthly evaluations in a woodland located in the community of Kopacati, Copacabana department, La Paz, Bolivia. The objectives of the study were to identify flowering and fruiting times, and to assess the relationships between plant size, environmental factors and plant reproductive success. The species produces floral buds between July and August. The production of flowers in the female state occurs between July and November, and flowers in the male state, between July and October. The highest production of immature fruits took place in November, reaching maturity in December and January. Both precipitation and temperature showed a significant influence on flowers and fruits production. Diameter at breast height (DBH) was the only allometric character significantly associated to the production of flowers and fruits between trees and shrubs. There was no significant difference in the production of flowers and fruits between trees and shrubs. The phenological patterns informed for this species are similar those reported for P. tomentella and P. besseri. The results of the present study contribute to the knowledge about the reproductive biology of Polylepis incarum and to promote programs of conservation and reforestation of the species

Estudios etnobotánicos y florísticos de los bosques amenazados de Polylepis incarum y Polylepis pacensis (Rosaceae) en Bolivia

Polylepis forests constitute important habitats for an array of Andean fauna and flora and provide direct ecosystem services to local indigenous communities. However, there are very few floristic surveys as well as ethnobotanic studies in these forest ecosystems. In this study, we evaluated the floristic composition of these forests, the socio-economic use of plant species, and the local assessment of past cover of P. pacensis and P. incarum forests in the western Bolivian Andes. We recorded a total of 46 plant species in P. pacensis forests and 58 species in P. incarum forests. They each include two endemic species, respectively, Aa trilobulata and Calceolaria bartsiifolia, and Hieracium padcayense and Calceolaria bartsiifolia. At least 13 species are medicinal and used to treat a variety of illnesses. Local indigenous communities use Polylepis as fuel, medicine, wood, and building material and it possesses an important ritual value. Fifty four percent of the interviewers considered that P. pacensis cover stayed unchanged for the last 10 years; whereas 44% perceived that P. incarum cover has increased, and 40% considered that it has decreased over the last 10 years. Conservation programs need to include the active participation of local indigenous communities, in order to improve the local valorization of these forest ecosystems.Los bosques de Polylepis (Rosaceae) constituyen hábitats importantes para la flora y fauna altoandina y proveen servicios ecosistémicos directos a las comunidades indígenas. Sin embargo, existen pocos relevamientos florísticos así como estudios etnobotánicos en estos ecosistemas boscosos. Evaluamos la composición florística, los usos socioeconómicos de las especies y la valoración local sobre los bosques de P. pacensis y P. incarum en los Andes occidentales bolivianos. Registramos un total de 46 especies de plantas en los bosques de P. pacensis y 58 especies en los bosques de P. incarum. Cada uno incluye dos especies endémicas, respectivamente, Aa trilobulata y Calceolaria bartsiifolia, e Hieracium padcayense y Calceolaria bartsiifolia. En total 13 especies medicinales son utilizadas para tratar una variedad de enfermedades. Las comunidades indígenas locales utilizan Polylepis como combustible, medicina, material de construcción y poseen un importante valor ritual. El 54% de los entrevistados mencionaron que la cobertura de P. pacensis se mantuvo durante los últimos 10 años; mientras que el 44% de los entrevistados consideró que los bosques de P. incarum aumentaron y el 40% consideró que éstos disminuyeron. Se precisan programas de conservación que involucren la participación activa de las comunidades indígenas locales, paramejorar la valoración de estos ecosistemas boscoso

Archaeological Central American maize genomes suggest ancient gene flow from South America

Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) domestication began in southwestern Mexico ∼9,000 calendar years before present (cal. BP) and humans dispersed this important grain to South America by at least 7,000 cal. BP as a partial domesticate. South America served as a secondary improvement center where the domestication syndrome became fixed and new lineages emerged in parallel with similar processes in Mesoamerica. Later, Indigenous cultivators carried a second major wave of maize southward from Mesoamerica, but it has been unclear until now whether the deeply divergent maize lineages underwent any subsequent gene flow between these regions. Here we report ancient maize genomes (2,300–1,900 cal. BP) from El Gigante rock shelter, Honduras, that are closely related to ancient and modern maize from South America. Our findings suggest that the second wave of maize brought into South America hybridized with long-established landraces from the first wave, and that some of the resulting newly admixed lineages were then reintroduced to Central America. Direct radiocarbon dates and cob morphological data from the rock shelter suggest that more productive maize varieties developed between 4,300 and 2,500 cal. BP. We hypothesize that the influx of maize from South America into Central America may have been an important source of genetic diversity as maize was becoming a staple grain in Central and Mesoamerica

Situación taxonómica de las especies del género Polylepis: implicancias para los estudios ecológicos, la conservación y la restauración de sus bosques

The number of species in the genus Polylepis has changed, according to the systematic treatments, from 33 to 28; however, until now there is not a clear species delimitation. It has been complicated to define evolutionary origins and understand speciation. This complexity may be the result of different processes acting independently or interacting: recent radiation, poliploidy, hibridization and the human intervention in its distribution, depending of the species group. In this article, we revised the taxonomic status of the genus Polylepis. Twenty-eight species are proposed, with the inclusion of two new species for Perú and one species (P. tomentella) with three subespecies. In addition, gaps of knowledge are analyzed and strategies of research are proposed to improve species delimitation. Incorporating a taxonomic structure could generate new insights to conservation, restoration and management projects; taxonomists and conservationist need to work together to define conservation units to avoid ambiguities and define new strategies

Características morfométricas de tres especies de pacay (Inga spp.) que afectan la calidad de la sombra en sistemas agroforestales de cacao (Theobroma cacao)

Trees of the genus Inga are used in agroforestry systems with cocoa and coffee because of their ecosystem services. In agroforestry systems, the canopy closure and the morphological characteristics of the shade trees are crucial for the growth of the cocoa. This study aims to show that species from the genus Inga are not similar, though in many places only one common name describes the whole genus (e.g. “pacay” in Bolivia), but that they show specific traits that affect the canopy. The objective was to evaluate the function of genus Inga trees, specifically the I. ingoides, I.marginata and I. spectabilis species, regarding the quality of shade for the development of Theobroma cacao. The study area is located in Sara Ana, in the municipality of Alto Beni, in northeastern department of La Paz, at an altitude of 430 meters above sea level, in the Subandean Amazonian forest ecoregion. To this end, we compared both the percentage of shade of Inga spp. between two cocoa Agroforestry Systems - conventional and organic - as well as the morphometric characters. The evaluation of the shade effectiveness with the functional species in cocoa Agroforestry Systems with the genus Inga, showed a similar proportion of canopy closure in conventional plots and in organic plots. The I. ingoides species has an average of 73% closed canopy, I. spectabilis a closed canopy of 59% and I. marginata 84% closed canopy. The morphometric analysis of I. ingoides showed a linear positive increase in diameter at breast height (DBH) with plant height. Similarly, the canopy increased linearly with height, and a positive relationship was also recorded between canopy and DBH. In the case of I. marginata, no statistically significant relationship was observed between the morphometric characters. I. spectabilis only showed a linear increase in DBH as the total height increased. The three Inga species showed interspecies specific differences according to their shading characteristics that affect their applicability in agroforestry systems with cocoa: producers have to consider climatic situations (sun-shine hours per day) and their ability to manage a certain species before species selection and planting