Oh no, it’s raining! A study of how information in online weather reports is interpreted, integrated, and used in everyday decision-making by laypeople

Different people in different occupations depend on weather forecasts to plan their work and recreational schedules. People with no expertise in meteorology frequently interpret weather forecasts and uncertainty information. These non-experts apply their prior knowledge and experiences in a variety of fields and their abilities to synthesize different types of information to interpret forecasts. Initial studies of communication and the interpretation of forecasts and uncertainty information focused on separate pieces of information rather than the situations of ordinary users. In this study, situations of typical users are simulated to increase the ecological validity when examining how different user groups interpret, integrate, and use information from online weather reports in their everyday decision-making. First, qualitative interviews of twenty-one Norwegians from five different user groups (farmers, exterior painters, tour guides, and upper secondary school teachers and students) were conducted. Second, sixteen upper secondary school students participated in an eye-tracking study. Immediately after this study, the participants were asked to verbalize their thoughts (think out loud) when viewing the gaze data. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to ensure the collection of rich data. In this study, the participants were given weather forecasts from one selected online weather report (www.Yr.no), which served as a basis for both data collections. The verbal data were analyzed by assigning codes and categories to the transcribed statements. The main findings of the study are as follows: a) For each representation, such as tables, diagrams, numbers and symbols, a set of strengths and functions (affordances) was ascribed and exploited by the participants. b) Only part of the representations that provided forecast and uncertainty information at the website was used by each participant. c) Nuances such as color and the number of drops were important in the interpretations of the weather symbols and forecast uncertainty, which were sometimes interpreted differently than intended by the forecast provider. d) Prior knowledge affected the participants’ interpretations and even superseded the given information in apparent conflicts. e) The interpretations were also affected by the integration of information from different representations, which was performed to create a dynamic picture of the weather and to control and compare information. f) The decision-making process influenced the construction of different reading paths and the selections of representations in different situations. g) The participants used a varying amount of information in their decision-making; their selection was dependent on the importance of the envisaged activity and the weather conditions for the day. h) Additionally, in situations in which the participants had a lack of experiences, this lack provides a possible explanation for why part of the information was occasionally not understood and used. i) Evaluations of weather dynamics and the degree of certainty in the forecast were disregarded when quick decisions were made. Some implications of the findings for communication and future research are as follows: a) Providers of online weather reports should take care in the details of the information they present because such nuances may be interpreted as substantial information. b) Uncertainty information should be easy to understand and use, and the benefits of this information should be clear to enable users to interpret the degree of certainty as intended. c) Information communicated in online weather reports should enable the use of different decision-processes. d) A comprehensive use of multimodal information in communication appears to be an advantage when information is used by different users in different situations. e) However, some users should be guided and supported to facilitate the interpretation, integration, and use of information from multiple representations in situations where they lack experiences and/or aim for an elaborate decision process. f) One possibility to support persons that lack experiences and have low situation awareness might be to provide consequences and impacts of forecast weather. g) Notably, forecast providers should take into account the needs of the forecast users. h) To achieve this goal, users’ needs should be addressed in a coproduction process. i) Future studies should investigate the situations of typical users and different decision-making processes

Arbeidsgrupperapport: Fisk og seismikk - forskningsfokus fremover

English: In December 2015 a workshop was arranged by the institute of marine research to discuss scientific investigation of the effect of sound exposure on fish. Participants represented 3 different stakeholders; science, industry (seismic and fishery) and regulating authorities. The workshop aim was to formulate specific research activities supported by all three stakeholders, with the common goal to give a better scientific basis for giving advice on how to regulate seismic activity in relation to fish and fisheries. Norsk: I desember 2015 ble det arrangert en arbeidsgruppe i regi av Havforskningsinstituttet for å diskutere forskningsaktivitet på effekter av seismikk på fisk og fiskeri. Deltagerne representerte tre ulike interessegrupper; forskningsinstitusjoner, næring (seismikk og fiskeri) og regulerende myndigheter. Formålet med arbeidsmøtet var å formulere forslag til kontrete forskningsaktiviteter med støtte blant alle aktørene for å kunne gi bedre og mer kunnskapsbaserte råd for regulering av seismikkaktivitet i forhold til fisk og fiskerier

Evaluering og opprydding av offisielle gytekart

English: Institute of Marine Research (IMR) presents maps of fish distributions and spawning areas for a large number of fish stocks. The maps are used by different organizations and research programs, and are important input in area management plans and advisory processes, which are made available in an open accessible server (http://maps.imr.no/geoserver/web/). For a few fish stocks, IMR presents maps that are published in peer-reviewed studies, but most of the maps are generated by stock experts using historical studies and data. IMR advice for seismic activity not to be conducted in areas with spawning. Good maps of spawning areas, updated with best available information is therefore of high importance. Sam-X is an internet based map tool developed by EPIM to assist anyone involved in planning and executing seismic surveys on the Norwegian continental shelf. As spawning areas and timing as highly relevant in this setting, EPIM founded the project described in this report at IMR to update and make available spawning maps to be used as input to Sam-X. Throughout 2014 and 2015, spawning maps for all relevant stocks has been evaluated and updated in a two-step process; 1) Evaluation of existing spawning map by the stock expert and suggestion of updates based on a literature survey, and 2) Production of a new spawning map with associated metadata published on the open server. Additionally, the project has established a yearly routine to check, and if needed, update spawning maps, to ensure good quality maps are available both for internal advisory purposes and external users as Sam-X. Norsk: Havforskningsinstituttet (HI) presenterer kart for utbredelse av et stort antall fiskebestander. Disse kartene brukes av ulike organisasjoner og forskningsprogrammer, og er viktig bakgrunn i arealplanlegging og rådgivningsprosesser. Slike kart er tilgjengelig på en server med åpen tilgang (http://maps.imr.no/geoserver/web/). For enkelte bestander er kartene som presenteres publisert i vitenskapelige artikler (per-review), mens for de aller fleste bestandene er kartene generert av instituttets bestandsansvarlige ekspert ved bruk av historiske studier og instituttets egne data. Som høringsinstans for Oljedirektoratet ved søknader om seismisk aktivitet, fraråder HI seismiske undersøkelser i gyteområder så lenge gytingen pågår. Gode gytekart, oppdatert med best tilgjengelig kunnskap, er derfor svært viktig. Sam-X er et internettbasert kartverktøy utviklet av EPIM for å hjelpe å planlegge seismiske undersøkelser på norsk sokkel. Da gyteområder og tidspunkt er av høy viktighet i denne sammenheng, har EPIM finansiert prosjektet som beskrives i denne rapporten. Prosjektets hovedmålsetning er å oppdatere og tilgjengeliggjøre gytekart som kan brukes av Sam-X. I løpet av 2014 og 2015 har gytekart for alle aktuelle bestander blitt evaluert og oppdatert i følgende prosess; 1) Evaluering av bestandsansvarlig ekspert av eksisterende gytekart med forslag til oppdatering basert på litteratur- og data gjennomgang og 2) produksjon av nye gytekart med tilhørende metadata publisert på den åpne serveren. I tilegg, har en i dette prosjektet etablert en årlig rutine til å sjekke, og om nødvendig, oppdatere gytekart, for å forsikre at kartene som brukes i rådgivning og av Sam-X holder tilfredsstillende kvalitet. Denne rutinen er implementert fra høsten 2015

Utvikling og testing av metoder for å redusere uheldige interaksjoner mellom hval / sjøfugl og notfiskeri - Tokt med MS "Vestbris" 6.-10. januar 2023 i Kvænangen fjord

Toktet hadde som mål å gjøre forsøk og samle inn data til prosjektene "Bifangst av sjøfugler i kystnært notfiske" (FHF 901751) og "Kartlegging og testing av metoder for å redusere interaksjoner mellom fiskeri og hval" (FHF 901681). Det ble gjennomført forsøk med lydeksponering for å holde hvalen unna nota, undersøkelser av interaksjoner mellom sjøfugl og notfangst og noen opportunistiske forsøk med å skremme bort fuglene fra nota med lyd og lys. I tillegg ble overvåking av fangstprosessen i mørket med lyssensitivt kamera og termisk kikkert testet og vurdert og det ble gjort erfaringer med hvordan lydsystemer kan implementeres ombord på fiskebåtene for å redusere interaksjoner mellom hval og fiskeri. Til tross for et kort tokt har vi fått noen foreløpige resultat fra to fangster. Det var få spekkhoggere til stede, og dermed betydelig flere observasjoner av knølhval. Lydsignalene som ble brukt i de to forsøkene hadde liten eller ingen effekt på knølhvalene. Det er dermed behov for å jobbe videre med utvikling av signaler som er effektive, også ved gjentatt og langtidseksponering, uten at de skader hvalen. Det er også behov for å sikre at lydsignalene ikke påvirker sildas atferd før man går videre med implementering i kommersielle fiskerier. Resultatene fra toktet tyder på at risikoen for at måker setter seg fast i nota er størst i siste fasen av innhaling av not og før fangsten blir pumpet ombord. Plutselige lyd og lys skremte effektivt måkene bort fra nota og bør undersøkes videre som mulige avbøtende tiltak. Erfaringene som ble gjort med bruk av lyssensitivt kamera og termisk kikkert til overvåking i mørket var veldig gode. Toktet har gitt oss nyttig erfaring for både gjennomføring av feltforsøk i vinteren 2023 /2024 og videreutvikling av metoder for redusert interaksjon mellom hval og fiskeri.Utvikling og testing av metoder for å redusere uheldige interaksjoner mellom hval / sjøfugl og notfiskeri - Tokt med MS "Vestbris" 6.-10. januar 2023 i Kvænangen fjordpublishedVersio

Behavioural effects of seismic dose escalation exposure on captive mackerel (Scomber scombrus)

Petroleum and fisheries are two of the most important industries in Norway, and the goal for management is sustainable coexistence for both. Mackerel is an important pelagic fishery resource, and mackerel can very well detect the seismic sound signals. The aim of this project was to investigate the behavioural responses of mackerel to seismic signals, and to evaluate potential responses in terms of affecting the fishery. Wild captured mackerel in a net pen was exposed to escalating seismic signals from an approaching source vessel, while behaviour was constantly monitored with video and echosounder, as well as the sound pressure level and particle motion level recorded with hydrophone and particle motion sensor, respectively. Fish behavior was analyzed in terms of swimming speed, vertical distribution, schooling and group dynamic. We aimed at conducting a dose escalation to identify the sound level at which a response is initiated. No clear responses were identified in response to the sound exposure. In addition, behavioural responses of farmed salmon and rainbow trout was monitored by video surveillance at three close-by aquaculture farms to avoid any potential harmful effects on the farmed fish. However, no behavioural responses in terms of swimming dynamic, swimming speed and collective behavior were observed from these videos .publishedVersio

Predicting the effects of anthropogenic noise on fish reproduction

Aquatic animals use and produce sound for critical life functions, including reproduction. Anthropogenic noise is recognized as a global source of environmental pollution and adequate conservation and management strategies are urgently needed. It becomes therefore critical to identify the reproductive traits that render a species vulnerable to acoustic disturbances, and the types of anthropogenic noise that are most likely to impact reproduction. Here, we provide predictions about noise impact on fish reproduction following a two-step approach: first, we grouped documented effects of noise into three mechanistic categories: stress, masking and hearing-loss, and test which type of noise (continuous vs intermittent and regular vs irregular) was most likely to produce a significant response in each category with either a meta-analysis or a quantitative review, depending on data availability. Second, we reviewed existing literature to predict which reproductive traits would render fish most sensitive to stress, masking and hearing-loss. In step one, we concluded that continuous sounds with irregular amplitude and/or frequency-content (e.g. heavy ship traffic) were most likely to cause stress, and continuous sounds were also most likely to induce masking and hearing-loss. From step two we concluded that the vulnerability of a species to noise-induced stress will mainly depend on: (1) its potential to reallocate reproduction to more quiet times or locations, and (2) its vulnerability to masking and hearing-loss mainly on the function of sound communication in its reproductive behaviour. We discuss in which stages of reproduction fish are most likely to be vulnerable to anthropogenic noise based on these findings.publishedVersio

Effects of sound from seismic surveys on fish reproduction, the management case from Norway

Anthropogenic noise has been recognized as a source of concern since the beginning of the 1940s and is receiving increasingly more attention. While international focus has been on the effects of noise on marine mammals, Norway has managed seismic surveys based on the potential impact on fish stocks and fisheries since the late 1980s. Norway is, therefore, one of very few countries that took fish into account at this early stage. Until 1996, spawning grounds and spawning migration, as well as areas with drifting eggs and larvae were recommended as closed for seismic surveys. Later results showed that the effects of seismic surveys on early fish development stages were negligible at the population level, resulting in the opening of areas with drifting eggs and larvae for seismic surveys. Spawning grounds, as well as concentrated migration towards these, are still closed to seismic surveys, but the refinement of areas and periods have improved over the years. Since 2018, marine mammals have been included in the advice to management. The Norwegian case provides a clear example of evidence-based management. Here, we examine how scientific advancements informed the development of Norwegian management and how management questions were incorporated into new research projects in Norway.publishedVersio

Characterizing coastal cod vocalization using a towed hydrophone array

To better understand spawning vocalizations of Norwegian coastal cod (Gadus morhua), a prototype eight-element coherent hydrophone array was deployed in stationary vertical and towed horizontal modes to monitor cod sounds during an experiment in spring 2019. Depth distribution of cod aggregations was monitored concurrently with an ultrasonic echosounder. Cod vocalizations recorded on the hydrophone array are analysed to provide time–frequency characteristics, and source level distribution after correcting for one-way transmission losses from cod locations to the hydrophone array. The recorded cod vocalization frequencies range from ∼20 to 600 Hz with a peak power frequency of ∼60 Hz, average duration of 300 ms, and mean source level of 163.5 ± 7.9 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m. Spatial dependence of received cod vocalization rates is estimated using hydrophone array measurements as the array is towed horizontally from deeper surrounding waters to shallow water inlet areas of the experimental site. The bathymetric-dependent probability of detection regions for cod vocalizations are quantified and are found to be significantly reduced in shallow-water areas of the inlet. We show that the towable hydrophone array deployed from a moving vessel is invaluable because it can survey cod vocalization activity at multiple locations, providing continuous spatial coverage that is complementary to fixed sensor systems that provide continuous temporal coverage at a given location.publishedVersio

Effects of the electromagnetic field used in hydrocarbon surveys on marine organisms

Controlled Source Electromagnetics (CSEM) technology has been used in the exploration for hydrocarbon reservoirs. It consists of an electric dipole source which is towed horizontally 30-50 m above the seabed or 10 m below the surface. As the electromagnetic (EM) signal propagates through the subsurface it may affect marine organisms that are electro- or magneto-sensitive. A device simulating these conditions (corresponding to three different exposure levels, low, strong, near field) was built to test the effect of EM on marine organisms in laboratory conditions.) Sandeel (Ammodytes tobianus) adults were filmed during a 15-minute near-field EM exposure but showed no significant changes in their behavior, nor any increased mortality. Haddock juveniles (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) were first exposed for 15 minutes to either one of the three EM levels then filmed and tested for magnetic orientation. None of the treatments caused mortality in fish. Juvenile haddock showed significant orientation according to the magnetic field but only after exposure to low and strong EM fields. They also showed a significantly reduced swimming speed following exposure to EM with intensities equivalent to distances of 100 (strong) and 1000 m (low) from the source with an average reduction in speed of 24%. Mean instantaneous swimming velocities of haddock decreased from 1.18 pixel/s (control) to 0.86 and 0.80 pixel/s after exposure to low and strong field levels respectively (GLM estimates), representing speed reductions of 27% and 32% after exposure to each respective level. Changes in swimming speed may affect dispersal of juveniles. However, it is unknown whether the decrease was a physiological or behavioural response. Therefore, it is not possible to make unequivocal conclusions about detrimental effects of CSEM at the population level.publishedVersio

Tracking a northern fulmar from a Scottish nesting site to the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone : Evidence of linkage between coastal breeding seabirds and Mid-Atlantic Ridge feeding sites

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