Explaining non-compliance dynamics in the EU

1\. Introduction 6 2\. Non-Compliance and Policy-Variation 7 3\. Policy- Explanations 12 4\. Rule-specific Explanations 18 5\. Conclusions 27 Literature 29 Appendix: Operationalization of Power and Capacity 33The European Union’s infringement procedure is highly legalized. Nevertheless, as in other international institutions, non-compliance occurs on a regular basis and its transformation into compliance varies across EU infringement stages and over time. State of the art compliance literature focuses mainly on country-specific explanations, such as power, capacity, and legitimacy. In particular power-capacity models explain a good part of whether non-compliance occurs and how quickly it can be resolved. Yet, these approaches leave substantial parts of the empirical variation that we observe unexplained. This paper argues that policy and, in particular, rule-specific variables – although often neglected – are important for explaining non-compliance. Based on a quantitative analysis, we show that policy matters not only for the frequency with which EU law is violated, but also the persistence of non- compliance over time and over the different stages of the infringement procedure

Policy Matters But How? Explaining Non-Compliance Dynamics in the EU

The European Union’s infringement procedure is highly legalized. Nevertheless, as in other international institutions, non-compliance occurs on a regular basis and its transformation into compliance varies across EU infringement stages and over time. State of the art compliance literature focuses mainly on country-specific explanations, such as power, capacity, and legitimacy. In particular power-capacity models explain a good part of whether non-compliance occurs and how quickly it can be resolved. Yet, these approaches leave substantial parts of the empirical variation that we observe unexplained. This paper argues that policy and, in particular, rule-specific variables – although often neglected – are important for explaining non-compliance. Based on a quantitative analysis, we show that policy matters not only for the frequency with which EU law is violated, but also the persistence of non-compliance over time and over the different stages of the infringement procedure

Proteinanalyse zur Charakterisierung der Lebensformen von Stigmatella aurantiaca

Um Veränderungen im Proteom während der unterschiedlichen Wachstums- und Entwicklungsphasen des Prokaryonten Stigmatella aurantiaca zu detektieren, wurden Proteinextrakte, die aus Zellen verschiedener Lebenszustände stammen, in einer zweidimensionalen Gelelektrophorese (2D) aufgetrennt. Tatsächlich änderten sich die Protein-Muster während der Entwicklung zum Fruchtkörper bemerkenswert. Proteinspots erscheinen und verschwinden, was auf eine entwicklungsspezifische Synthese und Degradierung von Polypeptiden schließen läßt. Eine Charakterisierung und Identifizierung dieser Polypeptide erfolgte durch die Massenspektrometrie. Partielle Sequenzen (bis zu 10 Aminosäuren), abge-leitet aus dem massenspektrometrischen Fragmentierungsmuster, wurden mit Polypeptidsequenzen in Protein-Bibliotheken verglichen. Diese Analyse resultiert in einer Zuweisung zu bestimmten bekannten Proteinen. Auf diese Weise können Polypeptide, spezifisch für vegetative Zellen, Sporen aus Indol-behandelten Zellen oder Fruchtkörper analysiert werden. Ein Protein konnte als der Elongationsfaktor TU, ein anderes als die verzweigte Kette der b-Untereinheit der Oxocarbonsäure Dehydrogenase (E1) von S. aurantiaca bestimmt werden. Eine weitere Homologie besteht zu einer ATP-abhängigen Clp Protease (Homolog CD4A der ATP-bindenden Untereinheit ClpA�s) von Lycopersicon esculentum, der Tomate, einem Eukaryont. Somit könnte auch bei S. aurantiaca eine Proteolyse von Proteinen durch das clp-System stattfinden. Für die Isolierung hochmolekularer Proteasen, die wahrscheinlich an der Entwicklung beteiligt sind, wurden Zelllysate verschiedener Wachstums- und Entwicklungsstadien von S. aurantiaca mittels einer Sucrosedichtegradienten-Zentrifugation fraktioniert. Die Enzymaktivität wurde mit einem proteasom-spezifischen Substrat bestimmt, während die übliche proteolytische Aktivität von Serin-, Aspartatsäure-, Thio- und Metalloproteasen gehemmt wurde. Das tatsächlich proteasomale Aktivität vorhanden ist, wurde durch die Verwendung eines spezifischen Antiserums gegen die 20S Untereinheit des Proteasoms des Archaea Thermoplasma acidophilum bestätigt. Die Verteilung der Enzymaktivität über den Sucrosedichtegradienten läßt den Schluß zu, daß S. aurantiaca hochmolekulare Proteasen beherbergt. Diese könnten für die Degradierung von Polypeptiden während des Entwicklungszyklus verantwortlich sein. Eine An-reicherung und Reinigung vermeintlicher hochmolekularer Proteasen wurde durch verschiedene chromatographische Verfahren erreicht. Fraktionen mit einer möglichen Proteasomaktivität wurden mittels 2D analysiert. Die bis jetzt gewonnen Daten weisen darauf hin, daß Proteine mit einer proteasomalen Funktion/Aktivität vorhanden sind, die am Entwicklungszyklus von S. aurantiaca beteiligt sind

Das Recht an der Erfindung und das Recht auf das Patent - Eine Analyse der Rechtsstellung des Erfinders in der jüngeren Rechtsprechung des BGH

Der BGH nimmt in der neueren Rechtsprechung eine kategoriale Trennung zwischen dem Recht auf das Patent und dem Recht an der Erfindung vor. Das Recht an der Erfindung wird zum Sammelbecken aller Fragen zur materiellen Berechtigung am Erfindungsgedanken. Das Recht auf das Patent bündelt alle Fragen der formellen Berechtigung im Anmeldeverfahren. Zugleich liegt dem Recht an der Erfindung (Patentfähigkeit ist dafür nicht erforderlich) eine persönlichkeitsrechtliche Rechtfertigung zugrunde. Der BGH versteht dieses Recht im Kern als ,,Persönlichkeitsimmaterialgüterrecht“. Eine solche Deutung lässt sich jedoch nicht rechtfertigen. Die Zuweisung anwendbaren Wissens kann nur utilitaristisch, nicht persönlichkeitsrechtlich gerechtfertigt werden. Da das Patentrecht auf Offenbarung der technischen Lehre angelegt ist, kommt auch ein Geheimnisschutz nicht in Betracht. Letztlich haben sich alle Rechte des Erfinders vor der endgültigen Patenterteilung an den Wertungen des Patentrechts messen zu lassen. Während das Recht durchaus sicherstellen will, dass der Erfinder (wenn das Recht auf die Erfindung bereits übertragen wurde: der Berechtigte) später Patentinhaber wird, ist es nicht möglich, die wirtschaftliche Verwertung der Erfindung vor Patenterteilung (patent-)rechtlich abzusichern. In recent judgments the German Federal Supreme Court strictly distinguishes two forms of inventor's rights: the right to a patent () and the right to an invention (). According to the German Federal Supreme Court, the right to a patent is a right of procedural law which covers the right to apply. In contrast, the right to an invention is a right of substantive law. It is not to be understood in the sense of a mere pre-filing right maturing into intellectual property if a patent is granted. Instead it is deemed a fully-fledged right which the inventor is entitled to, irrespective of whether the invention meets the criteria for patentability. Although it does not entail a right to exclusively reap the benefits of the invention, a similar result is achieved on a broad interpretation of the unjust enrichment principle (). The underlying justification is based upon a theory of personality rights which far exceeds the traditional acknowledgement of the inventor's moral right. The right to an invention is conceived as a personality property right (). However, this notion should not be upheld. A property right to an invention would imply a property right to factual semantic information, which could only be justified on utilitarian, not deontological grounds. Recognizing a right to an invention would also blur the boundaries between patent law and trade secrets. Inventor's rights are inextricably linked to the policy of patent law which is targeted at the disclosure of an invention in exchange for granting an exclusive right. While inventor's rights do assure that the inventor or his successor in title may eventually obtain the patent, they do not yet assure an exclusive right to use

Response to Glyphosate in Alopecurus myosuroides Populations from Lower Saxony

Das Totalherbizid Glyphosat wird weltweit im Pflanzenbau zur Unkrautbekämpfung, Ernteerleichterung, Saatbettbereitung und Abtötung von Zwischenfrüchten eingesetzt. Regelmäßig durchgeführte Gewächshaus-Monitoringversuche zum Auftreten und zur möglichen Verbreitung von Herbizidresistenzen in Niedersachsen zeigten, dass die Wirksamkeit von Glyphosat bei bestimmten Populationen von Alopecurus myosuroides reduziert ist. Dies könnte auf eine mögliche Toleranzverschiebung in Richtung einer reduzierten Sensitivität in manchen Populationen hinweisen. Eine Dosis-Wirkungs-Untersuchung wurde mit sechs Alopecurus myosuroides-Populationen aus verschiedenen Regionen Niedersachsens durchgeführt. Eine Glyphosat-sensitive Referenzpopulation wurde zum Vergleich herangezogen. Die Pflanzen wurden mit einer kommerziell erhältlichen, Glyphosat als Kaliumsalz enthaltenden, Formulierung in aufsteigenden Aufwandmengen (0, 225, 450, 900, 1800, 3600 und 7200 g Glyphosat/ha) behandelt. ED50-Werte wurden aus den Dosis-Wirkungskurven ermittelt und Resistenzfaktoren berechnet. Von sechs geprüften Populationen überlebten drei Wochen nach der Glyphosatbehandlung einzelne Individuen aus vier Populationen bei Aufwandmengen von 1800 und 3600 g Glyphosat/ha ohne jeglichen sichtbaren Schaden und wuchsen weiter. Sechs Wochen nach der Glyphosatbehandlung mit 900 g Glyphosat/ha kam es zu einem Neuaustrieb verschiedener zuvor, als vollständig kontrolliert bewerteter, Individuen aus vier Populationen. Die in dieser Studie gemachten Beobachtungen deuten darauf hin, dass die getesteten Populationen ein Potenzial zur Resistenzentwicklung haben könnten. Weitere Experimente müssen durchgeführt werden, um die zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen zu untersuchen.The broad-scale herbicide glyphosate is used worldwide in crop management system to control weeds, facilitate harvests, prepare seed beds, and desiccate cover crops. Greenhouse monitoring trials on herbicide resistance occurrence and potential spread conducted regularly in Lower Saxony, Germany, revealed a reduced glyphosate efficacy against some populations of Alopecurus myosuroides. This could indicate a potential shift towards a reduced sensitivity in some populations. A dose-response experiment was conducted with six Alopecurus myosuroides populations from various regions of Lower Saxony. A reference population, susceptible to glyphosate, was included for comparison. Plants were treated with a commercially available formulation containing the potassium salt of glyphosate. Treatments were 0, 225, 450, 900, 1800, 3600 and 7200 g glyphosate/ha. ED50 values were determined from the dose-response curves and corresponding resistance factors were calculated. When assessed three weeks after glyphosate treatment, single individuals from four out of six tested populations survived doses of 1800 and 3600 g glyphosate/ha without any visible damage and continued to grow. Six weeks after glyphosate application, a regrowth of several individuals from four populations, previously assessed as completely controlled by 900 g glyphosate/ha, occurred. The observations made in this study indicate that the populations tested may have a potential to evolve glyphosate resistance. Further experiments must be conducted to investigate underlying mechanisms

The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of subsoil phosphorus from P-33-labeled hydroxyapatite

Phosphorus (P) is an essential but often limiting macronutrient in ecosystems. In soil, free phosphorus is rapidly immobilized by sorption onto hydrous oxides or minerals containing Fe, Mn and Al. Therefore plants have the need to increase the availability of P from other sources e.g. solubilizing P from mineral apatite. Apatite can be found in mineral and biological forms, such as residues from bones and dentin, in soil. This Ca-phosphate mineral occurs in trace amounts in practically all metamorphic and igneous rocks and is often found as small mineral inclusions associated to weathering-resistant silicate minerals. Yet, there is not much information on the bioavailability of P from mineral apatite. Numerous papers have been published on hydroxyapatite synthesis, mostly focusing on its use as a bioceramic for biomedical applications that often differ in their physic-chemical properties from mineral apatite. In framework of the DFG-SPP 1685 on ecosystem nutrients the aim of this work was to implement a chemical synthesis for P-33-labeled hydroxyapatite (Ca/P ratio = 1.67) in order to get more information on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of subsoil P from minerals. A wet-chemical synthesis based on Wang et al. (2010), has been modified and extended, to create a procedure that allows the fast preparation (ca. 30 h) of hydroxyl-apatite labeled with P-33. The products were analyzed with IR-RAMAN and XRD. The reactions were performed under different reaction temperatures which resulted in four forms of hydroxyapatite with different degrees of crystallinity (amorphous high crystalline). Solubility tests were performed with all forms to investigate their pH-dependency, stating that the amorphous and high crystalline forms behave similar but differ from the intermediate forms. Rhizotrone experiments (60 days) will be performed using summer wheat as model organisms and the amorphous apatite form as point sources in soil. Two different subsoils (P-deficient/non-deficient) with two different water scenarios will be used to investigate the differences in root growth and the effects on the bioaccessibility and –availability of P from apatite. Radioactive imaging will be used to get information on the time that the roots need to grow to the apatite source, the amount that is taken up into the plant and to locate the areas of P-storage. High resolution pictures will be taken to investigate the growth of the root system for modeling purposes

Mycorrhizal Mediated Partitioning of Phosphorus: Ectomycorrhizal (Populus x canescens x Paxillus involutus) Potential to Exploit Simultaneously Organic and Mineral Phosphorus Sources

Many natural and anthropogenic soils are phosphorus (P) limited often due to larger P stocks sequestered in forms of low bioavailability. One of the strategies to overcome this shortage lies in the symbiosis of plants with mycorrhizal fungi, increasing the plant P uptake of these hardly accessible sources. However, little is known about mycorrhizal fungal mediated partitioning of differently available P forms, which could contribute to more efficient use of P by plants and, thereby, reduce competition for soil P. This study aimed to investigate the uptake of P from differently bioavailable P sources by ectomycorrhiza. For that, we conducted a rhizotrone study using Populus x canescens and its compatible ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus. Four different P sources [ortho-phosphate (oP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), hydroxyapatite (HAP), and oP bound to goethite (gP)] or only HAP as 1P control were supplied in separate compartments, where only the fungal partner had access to the P sources. The amount of the specific P sources was increased according to their decreasing bioavailability. In order to distinguish between the P sources, we applied 33P to track its incorporation in plants by a non-destructive analysis via digital autoradiography. Our results show that an ectomycorrhizal plant is able to utilize all provided P sources via its mycorrhizal fungal associate. The acquisition timing was determined by the most bioavailable P sources, with oP and AMP over HAP and gP, and a mixed P pool over a single P source. In contrast, the magnitude was defined by the by the amount of supplied P source provision of additional nitrogen, hence AMP over oP and gP, as well as by P source complexity, with gP as the least favorable P form. Nevertheless, the results of the present study provide evidence that an ectomycorrhiza has the potential to occupy fundamental niches of various P sources differing in their bioavailability, indicating that being a generalist in P nutrition can facilitate adaptation to various nutritional settings in soil

A small molecule screen identifies novel inhibitors of mechanosensory nematocyst discharge in Hydra

Cnidarians are characterized by the possession of stinging organelles, called nematocysts, which they use for prey capture and defense. Nematocyst discharge is controlled by a mechanosensory apparatus with analogies to vertebrate hair cells. Members of the transient receptor potential (TRPN) ion channel family are supposed to be involved in the transduction of the mechanical stimulus. A small molecule screen was performed to identify compounds that affect nematocyst discharge in Hydra. We identified several [2.2]paracyclophanes that cause inhibition of nematocyst discharge in the low micro-molar range. Further structure–activity analyses within the compound class of [2.2]paracyclophanes showed common features that are required for the inhibitory activity of the [2.2]paracyclophane core motif. This study demonstrates that Hydra can serve as a model for small molecule screens targeting the mechanosensory apparatus in native tissues