Social Innovation in Community Energy in Europe: A Review of the Evidence

Citizen-driven Renewable Energy (RE) projects of various kinds, known collectively as community energy (CE), have an important part to play in the worldwide transition to cleaner energy systems. On the basis of evidence from 8 European countries, we investigate CE, over approximately the last 50 years (c.1970–2018), through the lens of Social Innovation (SI). We carry out a detailed review of literature around the social dimension of renewable energy; we collect, describe and map CE initiatives from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the UK; and we unpack the SI concept into 4 operational criteria which we suggest are essential to recognizing SI in CE. These are: (1) Crises and opportunities; (2) the agency of civil society; (3) reconfiguration of social practices, institutions and networks; (4) new ways of working. We identify three main phases of SI in CE. The environmental movements of the 1960s and the “oil shocks” of the 1970s provided the catalyst for a series of innovative societal responses around energy and self-sufficiency. A second wave of SI relates to the mainstreaming of RE and associated government support mechanisms. In this phase, with some important exceptions, successful CE initiatives were mainly confined to those countries where they were already embedded as innovators in the previous phase. The third phase of CE innovation relates to the societal response to the Great Recession that began in 2008 and lasted most of the subsequent decade. CE initiatives formed around this time were also strongly focused around democratization of energy and citizen empowerment in the context of rising energy prices, a weak economy, and a production and supply system dominated by excessively powerful multinational energy firms. CE initiatives today are more diverse than at any time previously, and are likely to continue to act as incubators for pioneering initiatives addressing virtually all aspects of energy. However, large multinational energy firms remain the dominant vehicle for delivery of the energy transition, and the apparent excitement in European policy circles for “community energy” does not extend to democratization of energy or genuine empowerment of citizens

“No trees in the wrong place” defining multifunctional priorities for woodland expansion strategy to meet national climate targets in the Cairngorms National Park

Forests are the repository of much of the world's biodiversity, and therefore foresters must assume a degree of responsibility for its management and conservation. (Kapos and Iremonger, 1998). Maintaining such biological diversity it is now one of the most important goals of managing forests in a sustainable way and to address this need, biodiversity conservation organizations have proposed nine templates of global priorities over the past decade. (Brooks et al., 2006). However, if forest conservation priorities are well recognised globally, the process for understanding the distribution of species and ecosystems locally is scale-dependent (Lindborg et al., 2017). On the other hand, data that are available at a global scale are still typically sparse and of varying quality, while locally choices are still driven by detailed data. Managers and policy makers need to be cognizant of the biological significance of the forests they manage in a broad context, avoiding to compromise global biodiversity goals by managing their forests inappropriately. Therefore, to achieve this important management target it is crucial that managers be fully informed (Noss, 1999) on the status, condition, conservation value of each forest, and change in forest conditions over time. This thesis addresses these questions by examining a range of data-driven spatially explicit approaches with the purpose of supporting the assessment of potential impacts of different policy and climate scenarios on the Scottish forest- based sector. The specific forest types characterization and potentialities are guided by information at two levels: bottom-up models based on local characteristics of each site; and an overarching, top-down, national-level national policy for net carbon sequestration. In the forest Scottish context detailed local scale case studies are still lacking in incorporating the policy context and the ecosystem service approach, introduced in Chapter 2, to meet national strategic targets. Beside, human activities within and nearby the protected areas boundaries have increased the pressure on forest and the services they deliver, exacerbating the concept that management and land-climate systems need to coexist, and pursue the same sustainable development. The Cairngorms National Park represent an example, that may possibly encourage dialogue between different actors for the mutual advantage of using tools that facilitate the visualisation of constraints and opportunities for the forestry sector. In Chapter 3, the specific bio-physical assessment in the area and socio- economic drivers and barriers to change in Cairngorms is presented. Forests as carbon sinks, therefore, are required to play a multifunctional role that includes, but is not limited to, biodiversity conservation and maintenance of ecosystem functions; yield of goods and services to the society; enhancing the carbon storage in trees, woody vegetation and soils; and providing social and economic well-being of people (Pandey, 2002). Evaluating how climate mitigation measures (e.g. woodland expansion) may have unconsidered effect on other ecosystems and forest functions has become increasingly important in the study of long-term maintenance of biodiversity (Peters and Darling, 1985, Van der Plas et al., 2018, Minang et al., 2014). However, works dealing with modelling of the impacts of climate change on woodland species dynamics in Scotland to address carbon sequestration, one of the pillars in global mitigation, are limited. An attempt to model the future distribution of broadleaved and conifer species at Scotland scale, and investigate the potential impact on soil carbon is described in Chapter 4. Natural protected areas provide valuable services to society, including the supply and purification of fresh water (Postel et al., 2005, García-Nieto et al., 2013., Birch et al., 2014). Ecosystem services modelling tools has been widely compared (Dennedy-Frank et al., 2016, Rosenzweig et al., 2014, Cheaib et al., 2012, Vigerstol and Aukema, 2011), with a quite relevant concern in validation and accurancy, however successfully attempt in hydrological ecosystem (Redhead eta la., 2016) have recently raised the attention around InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs, Sharp et al., 2015). In Chapter 5, a methodological approach to nutrient and sediment retention taking account of modelling response to options of woodland expansion is established, through the integration of ideas developed in the Interim report for the Scottish Government (Gimona et al., 2019). Adaptation and resilience cannot be achieved without credible and robust information on climate change and its variability is needed to inform decision-making. UKCP18 is the most up to date national climate projections for the United Kingdom and will provide users with the most recent scientific evidence on projected climate changes with which to plan. The UKCP18 trends can drive future fluvial flooding which, already increasingly nowadays, can heavily threats the hydraulic and biological process of the flood plains. Engineering solutions seem insufficient to maintain low flood risk without affecting biota components (Talbot at al., 2018, Nedkov et al., 2012), hence natural catchment-based adaptation measures (e.g. Natural Flood Management, NFM) are likely required (Wilkinson et al., 2019, Iacob et al., 2016, Nisbet at al., 2011). Afforestation is one of the measures that can increase infiltration rates associated with improved soil structure and macropore formation (Eldridge and Freudenberger 2005). Target areas for spatial decision support and NFM approaches can be implemented through the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) providing an excellent opportunity for integrating with multi-criterion evaluation results (Jankowski et al., 2001). A suitability model of the occurrence of flooding risk and opportunity for afforestation in the Cairngorms National Park has been developed. This work is described in Chapter 6. The persistence of native species in fragmented landscapes is dependent on dispersal or foraging movements between habitat patches, which may be limited. Although corridors have been heralded as solutions, their effectiveness depends on species’ movement behaviour, which has rarely been studied (Doerr et al., 2011). Chapter 7 brings together results of potential dispersal connectivity for generic species in broadleaved woodland and specialized birds for native conifer. The connectivity paradigm here is defined by a prediction of movement patters in complex landscape based on circuit theory software. Such models identified the spatial opportunities for new trees that can act as stepping stones, increasing connectivity and facilitating range expansion (Rossi et al., 2016). Additional spatial data, not obtained by modelling methods, and the creation of the baseline land cover map to use for generation land use change scenarios is discusses in details in chapter 8; while results of four woodland expansion scenarios in the Cairngorms to meet the rate of national strategic target are presented in chapter 9. The outcomes are the simulation of forest land managers that can benefits from tools (e.g. spatial Multi Criteria Analysis, sMCA) to identify win-win functions and avoid unintented negative effects. Chapter 10 draws conclusions regarding this work. The management of all natural resources must now meet both national and local targets and guidelines. To achieve this stakeholders such as policy makers, managers, ecologists, foresters, and field rangers must have access to both spatial data and tools. Combining, GIS, statistical spatial models, specific ecological software and open- source frameworks and integrating data in a computer-based platform to let decisions managers explore options is therefore crucial to simulate and define multiple benefits. The main task of this research was to find a means to implement and integrate all the specific outcomes in the Cairngorms National Park area and outline the implication, described in chapter 11, of such effort. The specific objectives of this work therefore were: 1. To define areas for net positive soil carbon sequestration through woodland expansion in Scotland accounting for climate changes (2050-2070). 2. To parametrize and use model in water purification service in Scotland assessing some of the consequences of scenarios of broadleaved land use change. 3. To outline priority areas for implement Natural Flood Management in Scotland with the use of spatial analysis. 4. Defining the potential dispersal pathways addressing native conifer and broadleaved species to enhance connectivity in the Cairngorms National Park. 5. To discuss the usability and usefulness of MCDM methods from the viewpoint of supporting forestry decision making, identifying priority areas in the National Park for native woodland creation. 6. To map the options of woodland expansion in the Cairngorms National Park to meet national climate target. 7. To examine differences in the results of simulating different stakeholders opinions in defining priorities to the four chosen criteria. 8. To review the current Cairngorms National Park Forestry Strategy 2018

Use of Digital and 3D Visualisation Technology in Planning for Woodland Expansion. EGU2020-1243

Forests and woodlands offer many benefits to people. They can provide timber and food, store carbon to help deal with the effects of climate change, decrease flooding and soil erosion, and provide recreation for people and habitat for a multitude of species we care to conserve. Scottish forests cover roughly 19% of the country. The Scottish government has the ambition to add several thousand hectares a year over the next decades, to support the rural economy, the environment, and communities. It is important that a substantial proportion of the expansion is made up by native trees and shrub species due to better habitat for wildlife.These challenges were explored with a case study of virtual forest landscape from Cairngorms National Park (CNP) which was used to test preferences for scenarios of future woodland expansion. Spatial Multi-criteria Analysis (sMCA) has been applied to decide where to plant new forests and woodlands, recognizing a range of land-use objectives while acknowledging concerns about possible conflicts with other uses of the land. The tools used in the development and implementation of the 3D model were PC and Mobile based, and enable the incorporation of interactive functionality for manipulating features. Model inputs comprise 5m DTM, 25cm Aerial Imagery, 3D Tree Species, GIS layers of Current Forest and Woodland Expansion inside CNP. Afforestation animation has been attached in Google My Maps. This is through setting different keyframes by storyboard camera path animation around the area of CNP. Stereo panorama has been applied to selection of woodland expansion scenarios (e.g. Broadleaved potential corridors, Conifer potential corridors), which is viewed with mobile technology and Virtual Reality (VR) equipment.The 3D model with simulation of woodland expansion was used at the event of 2019 Royal Highland Show and European Forest Institute Annual Conference 2019. Audience feedback suggested the enhancement of user interaction through VR has potential implications for the planning of future woodland to increase the effectiveness of their use and contribution to wider sustainable ecosystems

Barking up the wrong tree? Can forest expansion help meet climate goals?

Forest expansion can make an important contribution to the 2015 Paris Agreement, through offsetting Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. EU, UK and Scottish forest policy encourages substantial forest expansion. Unfortunately, policy is still inadequately informed by high resolution data, and often assumes a fairly homogenous landscape, uniformly suitable soil types and idealised ‘average’ tree timber yields, while carbon emissions caused by soil disturbance during planting, and changes in climate are rarely adequately considered. Also, the proportional contribution of afforestation targets to national mitigation needs is often overlooked which could lead to over-reliance on tree planting. We address these shortcomings through an integrated modelling approach which estimates net carbon gain for eleven tree species accounting for the interactions between climate, soil and planting practices. We present detailed spatial results for a case study area (Scotland), showing where forest expansion would be likely to result in overall carbon gains, accounting for the differentiated spatial variability of timber yield classes for each one of the species considered including present and future climate. The results showed that upland ecosystems, whose soils are rich in carbon, were vulnerable to net carbon loss, particularly with intensive ground preparation and planting practices. While the prevalence of mineral soils in the lowlands makes them a safer option for planting in theory, these are also areas which might conflict with agricultural activities. Our findings strongly support the notion that both “the right tree in the right place” and “no trees in the wrong place” are important messages for practitioners. In terms of the total UK and Scottish carbon footprints, the magnitude of the offset obtained in 30 years if afforestation goals were fully reached would likely be around 1% of the UK total business as usual GHG footprint and around 10% of the Scottish footprint. Our results can help to improve the targeting of incentives and investments in forest and woodland expansion, but also reinforce the need to pursue emissions reductions in a variety of ways throughout all sectors.This work was funded by the Scottish Government’s Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services Division (RESAS)Peer reviewe

Effects of landscape configuration on mapping ecosystem service capacity: a review of evidence and a case study in Scotland

Abstract Context Humans structure landscapes for the production of food, fibre and fuel, commonly resulting in declines of non-provisioning ecosystem services (ESs). Heterogeneous landscapes are capable of providing multiple ESs, and landscape configuration—spatial arrangement of land cover in the landscape—is expected to affect ES capacity. However, the majority of ES mapping studies have not accounted for landscape configuration. Objectives Our objective is to assess and quantify the relevance of configuration for mapping ES capacity. A review of empirical evidence for configuration effects on the capacity of ten ESs reveals that for four ESs configuration is relevant but typically ignored in ES quantification. For four ESs we quantify the relevance of configuration for mapping ESs using Scotland as a case study. Methods Each ES was quantified through modelling, respectively ignoring or accounting for configuration. The difference in ES capacity between the two ES models was determined at multiple spatial scales. Results Configuration affected the capacity of all four ESs mapped, particularly at the cell and watershed scale. At the scale of Scotland most local effects averaged out. Flood control and sediment retention responded strongest to configuration. ESs were affected by different aspects of configuration, thus requiring specific methods for mapping each ES. Conclusions Accounting for configuration is important for the assessment of certain ESs at the cell and watershed scale. Incorporating configuration in landscape management provides opportunities for spatial optimization of ES capacity, but the diverging response of ESs to configuration suggests that accounting for configuration involves trade-offs between ESs

Social innovation in community energy in Europe: a review of the evidence

Citizen-driven Renewable Energy (RE) projects of various kinds, known collectively as community energy (CE), have an important part to play in the worldwide transition to cleaner energy systems. On the basis of evidence from literature review and an exploratory survey of 8 European countries, we investigate European CE through the lens of Social Innovation (SI). Broadly, three main phases of SI in CE can be identified. The environmental movements of the 1960s and the “oil shocks” of the 1970s provided the catalyst for a series of innovative societal responses around energy and self-sufficiency. These first wave CE innovations included cooperatives (e.g. in Sweden and Germany) who financed and managed risks for RE developments in the absence of support from governments and banks. A second wave of SI relates to the mainstreaming of RE and associated government support mechanisms. In this phase, with some important exceptions, successful CE initiatives were mainly confined to those countries where they were already embedded as innovators in the previous phase. In former communist countries of central and eastern Europe (Poland, former East Germany) CE development was hindered by societal mistrust of cooperative movements for their association with the state socialism of the past. In Scotland, UK, strong public support was given to CE, and a new form, the Community Development Trust, emerged and was later replicated elsewhere in the UK. The third phase of CE innovation relates to the societal response to the Great Recession that began in 2007-8 and lasted most of the subsequent decade. Though climate change had become a pressing concern, CE initiatives formed around this time were also strongly focused around democratization of energy and citizen empowerment in the context of rising energy prices, a weak economy, and a production and supply system dominated by excessively powerful multinational energy firms. CE initiatives today are more diverse than at any time previously, and though seriously constrained by mainstream energy policy in most countries, are likely to continue to act as incubators for pioneering initiatives addressing virtually all aspects of energy