Methods for obtaining dust samples by means of grinding concrete in order to determine the chloride concentration profile

This RILEM Technical Recommendation intends to give a general description of methods of sampling for obtaining chloride concentration profiles in concrete, applicable both for laboratory cast concrete specimens, for concrete cores taken from structures and for testing on site. These sampling procedures may be applied for obtaining concentration profiles of any other chemical species present in concrete

Violin Ceramic Joist Slabs: Evaluation and Proposal for Intervention with Duplex-Type Stainless Steel

Due to the present significant need to repair and maintain our buildings and the building repair sector’s minimal experience in special structural elements, we here describe a study on the repair of ceramic violin joist slabs in an actual intervention on a building erected in the 1950s that had been unsuccessfully repaired several times. Due to damp and being close to the sea, the main reinforcement elements had undergone considerable corrosion causing a significant risk to the building’s safety. The intervention necessarily involved replacing the affected steel rebars with appropriate elements with mechanical and corrosion resistance properties, as required by the latest building codes. An appropriate strengthening and repair system was developed with a stainless steel prosthesis fitted to the lower third of the joists that almost tripled their resistance, gave them 120 min of fire resistance, and increased their durability against corrosion at a cost of less than 50% of the current repair systems with minimum generation of construction waste. One of the most appealing characteristics of this new repair system is its avoidance of the full replacement of the joists, which can be considered as a relevant contribution to the sustainability of the construction industry

Efficiency of a conductive cement-based anodic system for the application of cathodic protection, cathodic prevention and electrochemical chloride extraction to control corrosion in reinforced concrete structures

This article describes the research carried out regarding the application of cathodic protection (CP) and cathodic prevention (CPrev), in some cases with a pre-treatment of electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE), on representative specimens of reinforced concrete structures, using an anodic system consisting of a graphite-cement paste applied as a coating on the surface. The aim of this research is to find out the competence of this anode for the aforementioned electrochemical treatments. The efficiency of this anode has been clearly demonstrated, as well as its capability to apply a combined process of ECE and after CP.This research was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (and formerly by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación) and ERDF (European Regional Development Fund) through projects BIA2010-20548 and MAT2009-10866, and also through the project PROMETEO/2013/035 of Generalitat Valenciana (Spain)

Electrochemical extraction of chlorides from reinforced concrete: variables affecting treatment efficiency

Este documento aporta los resultados de investigaciones realizadas en diferentes estudios en los que se aplicó la técnica de Extracción Electroquímica de Cloruros (EEC) a diferentes estructuras de hormigón contaminado con cloruros. Se cambiaron las condiciones experimentales con el fin de estudiar la eficiencia de la misma en cada una de ellas. Se estudió la dependencia con la posición del punto de toma de las muestras, con la densidad de corriente aplicada, con el tipo de hormigón utilizado y con las paradas realizadas en etapas intermedias del tratamiento. Para ver la influencia de la disposición geométrica de las armaduras,se realizó una experiencia con tipos diferentes de disposiciones de las armaduras, correspondiente a componentes estructurales típicos como los pilares y las vigas.This paper reports the results of applying electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE) to a series of chloride-contaminated concrete specimens. Experimental conditions were varied to study the efficiency of this technique under different circumstances. The survey covered the possible relationship between efficiency and the location of the sampling point, current density, type of concrete and treatment intermittence. Experiments were also conducted with different reinforcement configurations used in standard structural members such as columns and beams to ascertain the impact of rebar geometry

Use of Higher-Harmonic and Intermodulation Generation of Ultrasonic Waves to Detecting Cracks due to Steel Corrosion in Reinforced Cement Mortar

The aim of this work was to provide further confirmation of the possible use of non-linear ultrasonic techniques for detecting the cracking due to corrosion of steel reinforcements in concrete. To this end accelerated steel corrosion tests have been conducted on model reinforced cement mortar specimens, while monitoring the appearance and width evolution of visible surface cracks, and performing non-linear ultrasonic measurements based on the phenomena of harmonic distortion and intermodulation. A new parameter, based on the difference between the amplitude of the fundamental frequency and the sum of the amplitudes of all the first-order and second-order intermodulation products, has been proposed in this work. The results confirm that the appearance of visible surface micro-cracks are preceded and accompanied by the observation of strong non-linear features in the received signal. Furthermore, the new parameter proposed in this work is as efficient as the relative non-linearity parameters, classically used in harmonic distortion non-linear ultrasonic studies, for detecting the non-linear features associated with the critical events of the cracking of cement mortar due to embedded steel corrosion. A hypothesis has been developed considering the possible effect of the filling of the void space by liquid containing rust products after the formation of new cracks or the enlargement of its width. This filling process, which might be particularly enhanced by net convective transport of liquid, would explain the evolution of the values of all the parameters used for putting in evidence the non-linear elastic features after the critical events of the cracking process.This research was funded by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Grant code BIA2016-80982-R) and by the European Regional Development Fund (Grant code BIA2016-80982-R)

Sedimentary and structural evolution of the Lower Cretaceous facies in the sector Benicàssim-Orpesa, Eastern Iberian Chain

The Penyagolosa sub-basin is located in the south-eastern margin of Maestrat basin. Its structure is characterized by a system of listric faults NE-SW to ENE-WSW. These faults record two well differentiated periods of rifting: 1) Triassic-Jurassic initial 2) Late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, which are related to the opening of the Maestrat basin. The synrift succession of the Lower Cretaceous is formed by a carbonatic sequence of facies of more than 1300 m in thickness, Early Barremian to Albian in age, which includes nine cartographic units (from Kw to K5 and unit D). The postrif t succession is constituted by two cartographic units (FU and K5). The Lower Cretaceous synrif t succession in the Penyagolosa sub-basin, does not present significant differences with the other areas of the Maestrat basin. Never theless, the Benassal Fm (cartographic units K3m, K3s and K4) is much thicker than in depocenter of the basin. This significant increase in the accommodation space is produced by the sin-sedimentary activity of the Benicàssim fault (F.B). Features the Benicàssim fault was reactivated later during the Neogene extension, it still conser ves clear characteristics of their early Cretaceous activity, such as the disposition of layers in fans of the Benassal Fm and the depositional polarity of the involved carbonate facie

Effect of a Crystalline Admixture on the Permeability Properties of Concrete and the Resistance to Corrosion of Embedded Steel

Reinforced concrete structure durability hinges on concrete permeability, which relies on the characteristics of the inner porous network. Harmful ions and gases can accelerate steel corrosion. Permeability-reducing admixtures (PRA), including crystalline admixtures (CA), are commonly used to mitigate this. This study examines a commercial CA’s impact on durability-related aspects in concrete specimens. Two concrete mixtures with matching proportions were prepared: a reference mix and another mix with a commercial crystalline admixture. Several properties were studied, such as compressive strength, density, porosity, electrical resistivity, water absorption capacity, chloride diffusion, air permeability, and corrosion resistance. The studied admixture in concrete yields several positive outcomes such as a slight reduction in mixing water, a potential 6% increase in concrete’s compressive strength and the development of a denser and less permeable structure with 3% lower porosity and water absorption than the reference mix. Electrical resistivity improves by 10%. Unidirectional chloride diffusion tests show no differences. Air permeability decreases by from 36% to 55%, and the water absorption rate diminishes by 23%. The admixture potentially reduces the scatter in corrosion initiation periods for steel reinforcements, delaying corrosion onset by around 60 days, although more extensive experiments are needed for definitive conclusions.This research was funded by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (grant code BIA2016-80982-R) and by the European Regional Development Fund (grant code BIA2016-80982-R)

Impedance Spectroscopy Study of the Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Microstructure Development of Sustainable Fly Ash Cement Mortars

Today, the characterisation of the microstructure of cement-based materials using non-destructive techniques has become an important topic of study, and among them, the impedance spectroscopy has recently experienced great progress. In this research, mortars with two different contents of fly ash were exposed to four different constant temperature and relative humidity environments during a 180-day period. The evolution of their microstructure was studied using impedance spectroscopy, whose results were contrasted with mercury intrusion porosimetry. The hardening environment has an influence on the microstructure of fly ash cement mortars. On one hand, the impedance resistances R1 and R2 are more influenced by the drying of the materials than by microstructure development, so they are not suitable for following the evolution of the porous network under non-optimum conditions. On the other hand, the impedance spectroscopy capacitances C1 and C2 allow studying the microstructure development of fly ash cement mortars exposed to those conditions, and their results are in accordance with mercury intrusion porosimetry ones. Finally, it has been observed that the combined analysis of the abovementioned capacitances could be very useful for studying shrinkage processes in cement-based materials kept in low relative humidity environments.This work has been financially supported by the “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad” (formerly “Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación”) of Spain and FEDER through project BIA2011-25721

An improved procedure for obtaining and maintaining well characterized partial water saturation states on concrete samples to be used for mass transport tests

A conditioning procedure is proposed allowing to install into the concrete specimens any selected value of water saturation degree with homogeneous moisture distribution. This is achieved within the least time and the minimum alteration of the concrete specimens. The protocol has the following steps: obtaining basic drying data at 50 °C (water absorption capacity and drying curves); unidirectional drying of the specimens at 50 °C until reaching the target saturation degree values; redistribution phase in closed containers at 50 °C (with measurement of the quasi-equilibrium relative humidities); storage into controlled environment chambers until and during mass transport tests, if necessary. A water transport model is used to derive transport parameters of the tested materials from the drying data, i.e., relative permeabilities and apparent water diffusion coefficients. The model also allows calculating moisture profiles during isothermal drying and redistribution phases, thus allowing optimization of the redistribution times for obtaining homogeneous moisture distributions.We thank the funding received for this research from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) through project BIA2010-20548, and from the Ministerio de Fomento of Spain through project C34/2006

Shape Effect of Electrochemical Chloride Extraction in Structural Reinforced Concrete Elements Using a New Cement-Based Anodic System

This article shows the research carried out by the authors focused on how the shape of structural reinforced concrete elements treated with electrochemical chloride extraction can affect the efficiency of this process. Assuming the current use of different anode systems, the present study considers the comparison of results between conventional anodes based on Ti-RuO2 wire mesh and a cement-based anodic system such as a paste of graphite-cement. Reinforced concrete elements of a meter length were molded to serve as laboratory specimens, to closely represent authentic structural supports, with circular and rectangular sections. Results confirm almost equal performances for both types of anode systems when electrochemical chloride extraction is applied to isotropic structural elements. In the case of anisotropic ones, such as rectangular sections with no uniformly distributed rebar, differences in electrical flow density were detected during the treatment. Those differences were more extreme for Ti-RuO2 mesh anode system. This particular shape effect is evidenced by obtaining the efficiencies of electrochemical chloride extraction in different points of specimens.This research was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (and formerly by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación) and ERDF (European Regional Development Fund) through projects BIA2010-20548 and MAT2009-10866, and also through the project PROMETEO/2013/035 of Generalitat Valenciana (Spain)