Studien zur Substratspezifität der Linalool Dehydratase-Isomerase mit dem Fokus auf der Dehydratisierung von tertiären Alkoholen

Die natürliche Funktion der aus dem Proteobakterium Castellaniella defragrans stammenden Linalool Dehydratase-Isomerase liegt in der Funktionalisierung des Monoterpens Myrcen. Dabei wird im ersten Schritt Myrcen zu Linalool hydratisiert, während im zweiten Schritt die Isomerisierung von Linalool zu Geraniol stattfindet. Im weiteren Verlauf wird Geraniol vermutlich zu Geranial und Geranialsäure weiteroxidiert und kann so über die β-Oxidation abgebaut werden. In dieser Arbeit mit dem Fokus auf der Substratspezifität bezüglich der Dehydratisierung konnte sehr viel mehr über die LDI, vor allem in Hinblick auf den Mechanismus, das Substratspektrum und der weiteren Charakterisierung der LDI, in Erfahrung gebracht werden. So beschränkt sich das Substratspektrum nicht bloß auf die Monoterpene Myrcen, Linalool und Geraniol sondern es werden auch die Diterpene Farnesol und Nerolidol ohne Probleme akzeptiert. Neben diesen konnte auch eine Vielzahl anderer Substrate umgesetzt werden, wobei allen Substraten ein spezifisches Strukturmotiv eigen ist. Alle Substrate bestehen aus einem tertiären α-Methylallylalkohol und einem variierenden Rest. Interessanterweise muss an dem Kohlenstoff der Alkoholfunktion nicht zwingend in α-Stellung eine Methylgruppe liegen. Hier konnte auch gezeigt werden, dass eine Ethylgruppe oder ein Cyclopentanring ebenfalls von der LDI akzeptiert werden. Neben diesen Substraten konnten auch sehr kurze Substrate wie 2-Methyl-3-buten-2-ol 16 umgesetzt werden, aber auch aromatische Substrate 23 oder sehr lange Substrate wie Isophytol 32. Durch Synthesen einer Vielzahl strukturell abgewandelter Derivate des Linalools konnte indes ein guter Überblick über den Mechanismus gewonnen werden. Die Tatsache, dass kein Substrat ohne Vinylgruppe umgesetzt werden konnte, auch wenn diese aus elektronischer Sicht durch eine andere Doppelbindung ersetzt wurde, unterstreicht die Wichtigkeit dieser für die Bindung in das aktive Zentrum. Zudem konnte unter Verwendung von Rotameren mehr über die nähere Umgebung des aktiven Zentrums herausgefunden und gleichzeitig begründet werden, warum einige der synthetisierten Substrate wie 7 und 8 nicht umgesetzt werden konnten. Unter Zuhilfenahme von Deuteriumoxid im Puffer sowie durch den Vergleich der Dehydratisierung von Linalool mit d5-Linalool konnte zudem herausgefunden werden, dass der geschwindigkeitsbestimmende Schritt nicht die C-H Bindungsspaltung an dem Methylenkohlenstoff ist, sondern die Protonierung und Abspaltung der Hydroxyfunktion was zur Ausbildung eines Karbokations führt. Dieses Karbokation wird zudem über die Vinylgruppe durch Hyperkonjugation mesomerie-stabilisiert. Im weiteren Verlauf wird ein Proton am α-Methylkohlenstoff abgespalten und es folgt die Ausbildung der C-C Doppelbindung. Dieser Mechanismus konnte erfolgreich gegenüber anderen funktionellen Gruppen getestet werden. Hierbei konnte der Methylether des Linalools ebenfalls erfolgreich eliminiert werden. Aufgrund des etwas niedrigeren pKB-Wertes des Methoxysauerstoffs gegenüber dem des tertiären Alkohols, kann dieser protoniert und Methanol abgespalten werden. Interessant war hierbei, dass sogar die Rückreaktion in 30 % Methanol gelang, wenn auch nur in sehr begrenzten Mengen. Andere Strukturmotive wie die des Esters wurden ebenfalls getestet. Vor allem die Ergebnisse bezüglich Vinylester sind sehr interessant. Leider konnte hierbei keine reine LDI getestet werden, weswegen die Aussagen dieser Ergebnisse nicht als gefestigt angesehen werden sollten. Um die LDI weiter zu charakterisieren, wurden die Reaktionen der Hydratisierung und der Dehydratisierung am Beispiel von Linalool und Myrcen in unterschiedlichen Lösungsmitteln getestet. Interessanterweise führte die Verwendung aller Lösungsmittel zur Inaktivierung der LDI, wobei vor allem auffällt das polar-protische Lösungsmittel wie DMSO, Methanol und Ethanol einen eher geringen Einfluss haben, wohingegen aprotische Lösungsmittel wie Ethylacetat, THF oder Toluol sehr schnell zur Inaktivierung führen. Einzige Ausnahme ist, dass bei der Hydratisierung von Myrcen polar-protische Lösungsmittel ohne Vorinkubation zu einer deutlichen Aktivitätssteigerung in den ersten Minuten führen. Die Möglichkeit Methanol aus Substrat 15 eliminieren zu können, ermöglichte es ein Screening auf Basis der Oxidation von Methanol in Formaldehyd mit Hilfe der Glucose Oxidase zu entwickeln. Das hierbei gebildete Wasserstoffperoxid dient der Meerrettichperoxidase die Kupplungsreaktion von 4-Aminoantipyrin und Vanillinsäure durchzuführen. Während die Reaktion im Eppimaßstab eine rote Färbung des Lysats nach sich führte, war die Differenz zwischen Negativ- und Positivkontrolle in den 96 Well Platten innerhalb der gegebenen Zeit zu gering, um verlässliche Aussagen zu liefern. Das Problem lag hierbei eindeutig in der zur Verfügung stehenden Menge an LDI im Lysat. Das Expressionssystem BL21(DE3) reichte für das Screening nicht aus, um einen nennenswerten Umsatz zu erzielen. Von daher ist es hier sinnvoll, ein neues Expressionssystem zu entwickeln. Erste Ansätze mit einem auf dem T5 Promotor basierenden Expressionssystem sehen vielversprechend aus. Da Dehydratisierungsreaktionen eine immer wichtigere Rolle spielen, was vor allem der Defunktionalisierung von nachwachsenden Rohstoffen und deren Folgeprodukten geschuldet ist, lässt weitere Forschung hinsichtlich enzymatisch vermittelter Reaktionen notwendig erscheinen. Die LDI wird vermutlich in der Defunktionalisierung von Zuckern und Derivaten keine Rolle spielen, da sich ihre Aktivität bisher auf Substrate mit einem spezifischen tertiären Allylalkohol-Motiv beschränkt. Dennoch ist das ermittelte Substratspektrum sehr groß wobei vor allem die Möglichkeit sehr kleine Substrate zu dehydratisieren sowie selektiv tertiäre (R)- und (S)-Alkohole herzustellen, für die Industrie von großem Interesse ist.The increasing interest on dehydration reactions is caused by the large problems which are present nowadays in the degradation of sustainable resources and their derived products. In this light, enzymes like lyases with C-X bond-forming and bond-cleaving ability are getting more and more important. Regarding sustainable resources like sugars or cellulose the role of novel dehydratases with C-O cleaving ability is outstanding. This work is concerned with the linalool dehydratase-isomerase from the β-proteobacteria Castellaniella defragrans. Herein the LDI is involved in the degradation pathway of the monoterpene myrcene through selective hydration of myrcene into (S)-linalool followed by isomerization into geraniol. Further steps in this pathway most probably involve the oxidation into geranial and geranic acid, finally be degraded via β-oxidation. This work mainly employs the problems of the little specified enzyme LDI concerning substrate specificity and further characterization especially of the mechanism. Beginning with expression of the LDI we established a system in E. coli BL21(DE3). Biotransformations with lysate showed highest activity towards dehydration at slightly acidic conditions. For a better understanding about substrate specificity we synthesized a large substrate library including many linalool derivatives. Using this library we discovered a very broad substrate scope of the LDI. In addition to the monoterpenes linalool and derivatives, small to large substrates were accepted. Interestingly nearly all of the substrates converted had a specific tertiary α-methylallyl alcohol motif in common. Further we could identify linalyl amine as potent inactivator for the LDI. Also all accepted substrates showed a high EE resulting in accumulation of the (R)-alcohol regarding dehydration. Experiments using deuterium oxide as well as comparison of d5-linalool with linalool gave further detailed information about a possible mechanism. Herein the results of the specific activities lead to the fact that hydration of the hydroxyl-group is the rate-determining step. Using rotamer structures of non-accepted and converted substrates as well as secondary structure prediction gave first insights into a possible structure model. By making use of the postulated mechanism we found out that besides water also methanol could be eliminated. This reaction could be verified in additional experiments using methanol resulting in nucleophile addition. While using other solvents we could gain further information about the solvent resistence of the LDI. In order to develop a screening system the described reaction about elimination of methanol was successfully endorsed on several coupling assays based on formaldehyde or hydrogen peroxide. Within this set the coupling reaction of 4-aminoantipyrine with vanillic acid appears to be the best one. To conclude the LDI´s role in dehydrating sustainable resources is limited because of the very specific motif needed for dehydration. But the possibility of dehydrating very small substrates as well as the synthesis of enantioselective (R)- and (S)-alcohols is from an industrial point of view very valuable

Community Woodstove Changeout and Impact on Ambient Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Phenolics

A large woodstove changeout program was carried out in Libby, Montana, with the goal of reducing ambient levels of PM2.5. This provided researchers the opportunity to measure ambient concentrations of phenolic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) before, during, and after the changeout of nearly 1200 stoves to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Starting in the heating season of 2004/2005 and ending in the heating season of 2007/2008, 19 compounds were measured every three days using a high-volume polyurethane foam (PUF) sampler followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. Some of the organic species with the highest measured concentrations were also signature chemical markers for wood combustion. When comparing the measurements conducted during the heating season of 2004/2005 (prechangeout) to those of the heating season of 2007/2008 (postchangeout), there was a 64% average reduction in the measured concentrations of phenolics and PAHs, while the PM2.5 mass dropped by only 20% over the same time period. The results of this four year sampling program suggest that the Libby woodstove changeout program was successful in reducing overall concentrations of the measured phenolic and PAH compounds

De-intensification of postoperative radiotherapy in head and neck cancer irrespective of human papillomavirus status—results of a prospective multicenter phase II trial (DIREKHT Trial)

Background Current standard treatment concepts in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are based on former studies using 2D and 3D treatment plans. However, modern radiation techniques allow for a more precise and individual dose application. Therefore, in a clearly defined patient population, de-intensified risk-adapted radiation is investigated. Methods Patients with newly diagnosed HNSCC after surgery (with resection margins ≥1 mm and cM0) with the following tumor stages (TNM 7th Edition) were eligible for the study: oral cavity, oropharynx, or larynx: pT1–3, pN0–pN2b; hypopharynx: pT1–2, pN1. The patients should have either a low risk of local recurrence [≤pT2, resection margin ≥5 mm, no peritumoral lymphangiosis (L0), and no perineural invasion] or contralateral lymph node metastasis (≤3 ipsilateral lymph node metastases, in case of well-lateralized oropharyngeal or oral cavity cancer contralateral cN0, otherwise pN0). Patients were assigned to three different treatment regimes with reduction of the treated volume, radiation dose, or both, according to tumor stage and results of surgery performed. The primary objective was to show an LRR of <10% after 2 years. Findings A total of 150 patients were enrolled. Tumor localizations were as follows: n = 53 (35.3%), oral cavity; n = 94 (62.7%), oropharynx (82% HPV-positive); n = 2 (1.3%), hypopharynx; and n = 1 (0.7%), larynx. A total of 61 patients (41.0%) were stage IVA, 81 (54.0%) were stage III, and 8 (5.3%) were stage II. Median follow-up was 36 months. Cumulative incidence of 2y-LRR was 5.6% (95% CI: 1.7%–9.2%) in the whole study population and 14.1% (95% CI: 3.8%–23.2%) in patients with oral cavity cancer. Cumulative incidence of 2y-LRR in non-irradiated or dose-reduced regions was 3.5% (95% CI: 0.4%–6.5%). After 2 years, disease-free survival was 92% (95% CI: 87%–96%) and overall survival was 94% (95% CI: 90%–98%) for the complete study cohort. Acute III° toxicity was as follows: dysphagia, 30%; xerostomia, 7%; mucositis, 19%; and dermatitis, 4%. Dysphagia and xerostomia decrease over time. After 27 months, late dysphagia III° and xerostomia II° were 1% and 9%, respectively. Interpretation The study met its primary objective. De-intensification of postoperative radiotherapy irrespective of HPV status in a predefined patient population is associated with a favorable toxicity profile without compromising LRR. In an unplanned subgroup analysis, a significantly increased risk of LRR was observed in patients with oral cavity cancer. In these patients, de-intensified radiotherapy should be applied with caution

De-intensification of postoperative radiotherapy in head and neck cancer irrespective of human papillomavirus status—results of a prospective multicenter phase II trial (DIREKHT Trial)

BackgroundCurrent standard treatment concepts in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are based on former studies using 2D and 3D treatment plans. However, modern radiation techniques allow for a more precise and individual dose application. Therefore, in a clearly defined patient population, de-intensified risk-adapted radiation is investigated.MethodsPatients with newly diagnosed HNSCC after surgery (with resection margins ≥1 mm and cM0) with the following tumor stages (TNM 7th Edition) were eligible for the study: oral cavity, oropharynx, or larynx: pT1–3, pN0–pN2b; hypopharynx: pT1–2, pN1. The patients should have either a low risk of local recurrence [≤pT2, resection margin ≥5 mm, no peritumoral lymphangiosis (L0), and no perineural invasion] or contralateral lymph node metastasis (≤3 ipsilateral lymph node metastases, in case of well-lateralized oropharyngeal or oral cavity cancer contralateral cN0, otherwise pN0). Patients were assigned to three different treatment regimes with reduction of the treated volume, radiation dose, or both, according to tumor stage and results of surgery performed. The primary objective was to show an LRR of &lt;10% after 2 years.FindingsA total of 150 patients were enrolled. Tumor localizations were as follows: n = 53 (35.3%), oral cavity; n = 94 (62.7%), oropharynx (82% HPV-positive); n = 2 (1.3%), hypopharynx; and n = 1 (0.7%), larynx. A total of 61 patients (41.0%) were stage IVA, 81 (54.0%) were stage III, and 8 (5.3%) were stage II. Median follow-up was 36 months. Cumulative incidence of 2y-LRR was 5.6% (95% CI: 1.7%–9.2%) in the whole study population and 14.1% (95% CI: 3.8%–23.2%) in patients with oral cavity cancer. Cumulative incidence of 2y-LRR in non-irradiated or dose-reduced regions was 3.5% (95% CI: 0.4%–6.5%). After 2 years, disease-free survival was 92% (95% CI: 87%–96%) and overall survival was 94% (95% CI: 90%–98%) for the complete study cohort. Acute III° toxicity was as follows: dysphagia, 30%; xerostomia, 7%; mucositis, 19%; and dermatitis, 4%. Dysphagia and xerostomia decrease over time. After 27 months, late dysphagia III° and xerostomia II° were 1% and 9%, respectively.InterpretationThe study met its primary objective. De-intensification of postoperative radiotherapy irrespective of HPV status in a predefined patient population is associated with a favorable toxicity profile without compromising LRR. In an unplanned subgroup analysis, a significantly increased risk of LRR was observed in patients with oral cavity cancer. In these patients, de-intensified radiotherapy should be applied with caution

Structural and functional insights into asymmetric enzymatic dehydration of alkenols

The asymmetric dehydration of alcohols is an important process for the direct synthesis of alkenes. We report the structure and substrate specificity of the bifunctional linalool dehydratase isomerase (LinD) from the bacterium Castellaniella defragrans that catalyzes in nature the hydration of β-myrcene to linalool and the subsequent isomerization to geraniol. Enzymatic kinetic resolutions of truncated and elongated aromatic and aliphatic tertiary alcohols (C5-C15) that contain a specific signature motif demonstrate the broad substrate specificity of LinD. The three-dimensional structure of LinD from Castellaniella defragrans revealed a pentamer with active sites at the protomer interfaces. Furthermore, the structure of LinD in complex with the product geraniol provides initial mechanistic insights into this bifunctional enzyme. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed active site amino acid residues essential for its dehydration and isomerization activity. These structural and mechanistic insights facilitate the development of hydrating catalysts, enriching the toolbox for novel bond-forming biocatalysis

Limiting arms, enforcing limits: International inspections and the challenges of compellance in Germany post-1919, Iraq post-1991

This article compares efforts to curb German military power after 1919 with attempts to limit that of Iraq after 1991. It argues that incomplete defeat in each case, compounded by disputes among the victors (exploited by the Germans and Iraqis) undermined a long-term maintenance of each settlement.UNSCOM’s problems in Iraq in the 1990s replicated much of what had hamstrung the IMCC in Germany in the 1920s. Crucial was the lack of autonomous intelligence and verification capabilities, enabling the targeted regimes to defy inspections, whilst challenging the impartiality and legitimacy of the enforcers. Facing devious and unrepentant adversaries, both inspection regimes survived barely seven years. In both cases a second war would ensue against the non-compliers – Germany in 1939, Iraq in 2003