The private sector and the marginalized poor : An assessment of the potential role of business in reducing poverty and marginality in rural Ethiopia

The present research analyzes the role that the private sector can play in reducing poverty and marginality in Ethiopia by providing improved agricultural inputs to marginalized poor farmers. Two important insights motivate the present research: one is the rise of various innovative business approaches in the last years that aim at reducing poverty or contributing to the solution to other societal problems. The other insight motivating this research is that the very poorest have long not benefitted from poverty reduction efforts. In that context, marginality has been identified as a root cause of poverty and its persistence. Against this background, the concept of marginality is presented and applied to the context of Ethiopia. Using Geographic Information System (GIS) software, a marginality map of Ethiopia is created by overlaying seven indicators capturing different aspects of marginality. Results show that marginality is a severe and widespread problem in Ethiopia with more than 40 million people being severely marginalized. Marginality hotspots are found in Amhara and SNNP. Interestingly, marginality hotspots are not correlated with agro-ecological zones and are ethnically more homogeneous than non-hotspot areas. Furthermore, areas posing specific business opportunities and challenges are identified based on information on population density, quality of road and mobile phone connection and farming systems. This area classification reveals that companies catering to the marginalized poor need to go the ‘last mile’ within areas exhibiting special business challenges and opportunities rather than investing in separated areas. After having identified and located the marginalized poor in Ethiopia, survey data that is representative for the most marginalized in the country is analyzed concerning purchasing behavior and needs expressed by the marginalized poor. Using descriptive statistics it can be shown that the amount of cash the marginalized poor have at hand varies considerably across regions but not very much within regions. The marginalized poor have in common that they spend a high percentage of their expenditures on food (around 70%), followed by commodities such as kerosene and clothes. The three most bought products are salt, kerosene and soap. This translates into considerable market sizes of these products. That people mention agricultural inputs as one of their most urgent unsatisfied needs can be explained by the fact that productivity of smallholder farmers is very low in Ethiopia and improved agricultural inputs are in short supply. Thus, an institutional analysis of the seed, fertilizer and agro-chemical markets is carried out to understand the frictions on these markets and to assess possibilities for the private sector to contribute to the reduction of poverty and marginality through adequate investments. Analyzing more than 60 expert interviews carried out in Ethiopia, it turns out that the market for seeds of major crops is highly regulated by the government, with institutions favoring public companies. One implication of this system is that all seed is distributed via one channel, which leads to a lack of traceability of the seed and, thus, lacking accountability for seed producers. Moreover, it causes a lack of agro-dealers as seed distribution is exclusively carried out by cooperatives and cooperative unions on behalf of the government. The only exceptions from the strict government control are international seed companies that produce their own varieties. Fertilizer importation and distribution is completely under government control, with no private companies being active on this market. The markets for fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals, however, are less regulated. A multitude of small private firms engages in import and distribution. Nevertheless, there is a shortage also for these products that is mainly caused by a lack of access to finance. Due to the absence of an agro-dealer network in the country, the availability of fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals is very limited outside urban centers as small traders do not have the capacity to invest in marketing infrastructure. To motivate private companies to invest in agricultural markets and to cater to the marginalized poor, several institutional changes are necessary. For seed companies, access to breeder seed, the assignment of more land and the availability of plant breeders are crucial elements. For fertilizer companies, a fair tendering process and the abolishment of import quantity prescriptions are of major importance. Such well-designed market liberalization efforts are likely to result in the creation of an agro-dealer network as a positive externality that would also benefit traders of fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals. For all companies, access to finance at reasonable cost, especially with lower collateral requirements, is essential to expand operations. While companies can be expected to push for changes, the current system and the self-conception of the Ethiopian government require the government to be in the lead in the efforts for changes. Successful role models, support by other stakeholders and successes with investment incentive schemes in other sectors in Ethiopia could encourage the government to gradually liberalize the market. If institutional changes are enacted to partly liberalize the market, it needs to be ensured that the marginalized poor, who currently benefit from the government’s equity approach, are included in the value chains even if companies do not operate with innovative business approaches. However, as the poor constitute a very large share of the market, Ethiopia may even be a leading example for companies in how to apply business models catering to the poor as companies are forced to adjust to this target group if they want to develop the largest part of the market

Use of coronary calcium score scans from stand-alone multislice computed tomography for attenuation correction of myocardial perfusion SPECT

Purpose: To evaluate the use of CT attenuation maps, generated from coronary calcium scoring (CCS) scans at in- and expiration with a 64-slice CT scanner, for attenuation correction (AC) of myocardial perfusion SPECT images. Methods: Thirty-two consecutive patients underwent 99mTc-tetrofosmin gated adenosine stress/rest SPECT scan on an Infinia Hawkeye SPECT-CT device (GE Medical Systems) followed by CCS and CT angiography on a 64-slice CT. AC of the iteratively reconstructed images was performed with AC maps obtained: (a) from the "Hawkeye” low-resolution X-ray CT facility attached to the Infinia camera (IRAC); (b) from the CCS scan acquired on a 64-slice CT scanner during maximal inspiration (ACINSP) and (c) during normal expiration (ACEXP). Automatically determined uptake values of stress scans (QPS, Cedars Medical Sinai) from ACINSP and ACEXP were compared with IRAC. Agatston score (AS) values using ACINSPversus ACEXP were also compared. Results: ACINSP and ACEXP resulted in identical findings versus IRAC by visual analysis. A good correlation for uptake values between IRAC and ACINSP was found (apex, r=0.92; anterior, r=0.85; septal, r=0.91; lateral, r=0.86; inferior, r=0.90; all p<0.0001). The correlation was even closer between IRAC and ACEXP (apex, r=0.97; anterior, r=0.91; septal, r=0.94; lateral, r=0.92; inferior, r=0.97; all p<0.0001). The mean AS during inspiration (319±737) and expiration(317±778) was comparable (p=NS). Conclusion: Attenuation maps from CCS allow accurate AC of SPECT MPI images. ACEXP proved superior to ACINSP, suggesting that in hybrid scans CCS may be performed during normal expiration to allow its additional use for AC of SPECT MP

Global Functional Analyses of Cellular Responses to Pore-Forming Toxins

Here we present the first global functional analysis of cellular responses to pore-forming toxins (PFTs). PFTs are uniquely important bacterial virulence factors, comprising the single largest class of bacterial protein toxins and being important for the pathogenesis in humans of many Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Their mode of action is deceptively simple, poking holes in the plasma membrane of cells. The scattered studies to date of PFT-host cell interactions indicate a handful of genes are involved in cellular defenses to PFTs. How many genes are involved in cellular defenses against PFTs and how cellular defenses are coordinated are unknown. To address these questions, we performed the first genome-wide RNA interference (RNAi) screen for genes that, when knocked down, result in hypersensitivity to a PFT. This screen identifies 106 genes (∼0.5% of genome) in seven functional groups that protect Caenorhabditis elegans from PFT attack. Interactome analyses of these 106 genes suggest that two previously identified mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, one (p38) studied in detail and the other (JNK) not, form a core PFT defense network. Additional microarray, real-time PCR, and functional studies reveal that the JNK MAPK pathway, but not the p38 MAPK pathway, is a key central regulator of PFT-induced transcriptional and functional responses. We find C. elegans activator protein 1 (AP-1; c-jun, c-fos) is a downstream target of the JNK-mediated PFT protection pathway, protects C. elegans against both small-pore and large-pore PFTs and protects human cells against a large-pore PFT. This in vivo RNAi genomic study of PFT responses proves that cellular commitment to PFT defenses is enormous, demonstrates the JNK MAPK pathway as a key regulator of transcriptionally-induced PFT defenses, and identifies AP-1 as the first cellular component broadly important for defense against large- and small-pore PFTs

Transaction Costs on the Ethiopian Formal Seed Market and Innovations for Encouraging Private Sector Investments

There is a considerable shortage of improved seed in Ethiopia. Despite good reasons to invest in this market, private sector investments are not observed. Using an institutional economics theoretical framework, this paper analyzes the formal Ethiopian seed system and identifies transaction costs to find potential starting points for institutional innovations. Analyzing data from more than 60 expert interviews conducted in Ethiopia mainly in 2012, it appears that transaction costs are high along the whole seed value chain and mainly born by the government as public organizations dominate the Ethiopian seed system, leaving little room for the private sector. However, direct marketing pilots that have been started recently are a signal of careful market liberalization efforts

Testing the use of the silica deposition fluorescent probe PDMPO to estimate in situ growth rates of diatoms

The fluorophore [2‐(4‐pyridyl)‐5{[4‐dimethylaminoethyl‐aminocarbamoyl‐methoxy]phenyl}oxazole], in short PDMPO, is incorporated in newly polymerized silica in diatom frustules and thereby provides a tool to estimate Si uptake, study diatom cell cycles but also determine mortality‐independent abundance‐based species specific‐growth rates in cultures and natural assemblages. In this study, the theoretical framework and applicability of the PDMPO staining technique to estimate diatom species specific‐growth rates were investigated. Three common polar diatom species, Pseudo‐nitzschia subcurvata, Chaetoceros simplex, and Thalassiosira sp., chosen in order to cover a broad range of species specific frustule and life‐cycle characteristics, were incubated over 24 h in control (no PDMPO) and with 0.125 and 0.6 μM PDMPO addition, respectively. Results indicate that specific‐growth rates of the species tested were not affected in both treatments with PDMPO addition. The specific‐growth rate estimates based on the PDMPO staining patterns (μPDMPO) were comparable and more robust than growth rates estimated from the changes in cell concentrations (μcc). This technique also allowed to investigate and highlight the importance of the illumination cycle (light and dark phases) on cell division in diatoms

Diatom specific growth rates based on cell concentrations and PDMPO staining

The fluorophore [2-(4-pyridyl)-5{[4-dimethylaminoethyl-aminocarbamoyl)-methoxy]phenyl}oxazole], in short PDMPO, is incorporated in newly polymerized silica in diatom frustules and thereby provides a tool to estimate Si uptake, study diatom cell cycles but also determine mortality-independent abundance-based species specific growth rates in cultures and natural assemblages. In this study, the theoretical framework and applicability of the PDMPO staining technique to estimate diatom species specific growth rates were investigated. Three key polar diatom species, Pseudonitzschia subcurvata, Chaetoceros simplex and Thalassiosira sp., chosen to cover a broad range of species-related frustule and life-cycle characteristics, were incubated over 24 hours in control (no PDMPO) and with 0.125 µM and 0.6 µM PDMPO addition, respectively, in the laboratory facilities of the Alfred- Wegener-Institute Bremerhaven, Germany. The main assumptions tested during this study were: 1) Addition of PDMPO does not affect division rates. 2) Newly divided cells (daughter cells) can be readily recognized by their fluorescent valves and PDMPO is taken up only in newly formed valves. 3) The populations do not divide synchronously (here the impact off light-dark cycles on division was also included). Assumptions 1 and 2 were tested by comparing cell concentration-based growth rates with those based on PDMPO stain in control incubations and in incubations where PDMPO was added. This was carried out for P. subcurvata (Ps), C. simplex (Cs) and Thalassiosira sp. (Ts) acclimated to 20 µmol photon m-2 s-1 at 0.125 µM (all species) and 0.6 µM (for Ps and Cs) PDMPO final concentration. The impact of PDMPO addition was further tested on Thalassiosira sp. acclimated at 110 µmol photon m-2 s-1 at both 0.125 µM and 0.6 µM PDMPO final concentration. All cultures were acclimated in semi-continuous batch cultures for at least nine generations before starting the experiments. Following acclimation, the experimental incubations were carried out in two consecutive phases: 1) To ensure that cells were acclimated and growing exponentially, cultures were transferred into new media at the end of the exponential growth phase for another nine generations. 2) Following acclimation, cultures were diluted into 8 or 12 incubations bottles (replicate incubations) containing new media. In the first days after transfer, cell concentrations were monitored to ensure exponential growth (Control phase). After this short period, PDMPO (LysoSensor Yellow/Blue DND-160, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) was added to four or eight (depending on species and experiment) replicate bottles while the remaining four bottles were incubated without stain addition (controls). Experiments were terminated and sampled 24 h (full light-dark cycle) after PDMPO addition. Daily samples for cell enumeration, fixed with acidic Lugol's solution (around 1% f.c.), were taken during the control phase. After addition of PDMPO, samples for cell enumeration and PDMPO analysis were taken at the time of stain addition (t0) and 24 hours later (t24). Further samples were taken at the beginning (if different from t0) and end (if different from t24) of both light and dark cycles, respectively. Samples were fixed with 2% (f.c.) hexamine-buffered formalin and stored in glass vials in the dark at 4°C until analysis. To determine cell abundance, 10 mL of undiluted or diluted fixed sample (from 3 to 4 independent replicate bottles each) were settled in a 10 ml Utermöhl sedimentation chamber (HYDRO-BIOS, Kiel, Germany). At least 300 cells were counted with a Zeiss Axiovert 40C inverted light microscope or a Zeiss Axiovert 200 epifluorescence microscope. Samples with PDMPO were counted with the aforementioned epifluorescence microscope equipped with a long pass filter (Zeiss Filter set 02; ex: G365, bs: FT395; em: LP420). Samples were counted at 200x to 630x magnification depending on species and intensity of the PDMPO signal. While in culture both N0 and Nt, and therefore μ, can be easily determined through cell counts; this is not the case for incubations with natural assemblages, where grazers and other processes lead to cell loss and consequently an underestimation of Nt. Incubations with PDMPO overcomes this issue by allowing the determination of N0 (Nt=N0×e^(μt) (Eq. 1)) based on the relative proportion of PDMPO stained cells (newly divided) and unstained cell at the end of an incubation as follows: Given Nt the total cell number of a species from a subsample at a time t after PDMPO addition. Nt=nt+nt', with nt the total number of non-(PDMPO) stained cells of the species in the same subsample (cells that did not divide yet), and nt' the total number of cells with one PDMPO stained valve (cells issued from the first division after PDMPO addition to the culture media). All things being equal, the population (N0) at the time when PDMPO was added that gave rise to Nt should be N0=nt+((nt')/2)=Nt-((nt')/2) (Eq. 2). Growth rates from cells counts were estimated using (Eq. 1), while growth rates using PDMPO were calculated from the number of non-stained (nt), half-stained (nt') and fully stained (nt'') cells using μ[d-1]=ln((nt+nt')/(nt+(nt')/2))×(1/t) (Eq. 3) or μ[d-1]=ln((nt'+nt'')/((nt')/2))×(1/t) (Eq. 4). Cells attached to each other (potentially in the final phase of division) were also considered as non-stained, half-stained and fully-stained individuals, respectively, based on the presence/absence of a PDMPO signal on the valves