Exosomes neuronaux (rôle dans le passage intercellulaire de protéines et d'ARN)

Les exosomes sont des vésicules d'origine endocytaire sécrétées par les cellules dans leur environnement après fusion des endosomes multivésiculés avec la membrane plasmique. Ils représentent un nouveau moyen de communication cellulaire par le transfert intercellulaire de protéines, de lipides et d'ARN. Dans le laboratoire, nous nous intéressons aux rôles que pourraient jouer les exosomes neuronaux dans le système nerveux central. Nous avons montré que les neurones matures sécrètent des exosomes. Nous avons mis en évidence que cette sécrétion est directement reliée à l'activité synaptique glutamatergique et à une entrée de Ca2+. Nous avons également découvert que la partie C-terminale de la chaîne lourde de la toxine du tétanos peut être sécrétée par voie exosomale. Nous avons observé que les exosomes la contenant sont repris par des neurones en culture. Un tel cargo semble d'ailleurs influencer le devenir des exosomes. De plus, pour étudier la recapture des exosomes, nous avons utilisé des exosomes de cellules N2a exprimant la tétraspanine CD63 fusionnée à la GFP. En incubant des neurones d'hippocampe avec des exosomes GFP-CD63, nous sommes parvenus à démontrer qu'ils étaient endocytés par les neurones receveurs. Cependant, bien que les exosomes semblent avoir été internalisés, nos résultats suggèrent que leur trafic serait indépendant de la voie endocytaire classique. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressé au contenu en ARN des exosomes de N2a et de neurones. Nous avons démontré qu'ils contenaient majoritairement des ARN courts (<= 200 nucléotides) parmi lesquels, les microARN 132 et 138. Les microARN sont de puissants régulateurs de l'expression génique. Leur transfert, via les exosomes, représenterait une nouvelle voie de régulation très fine et avec un impact conséquent sur le fonctionnement du système nerveux. Les exosomes neuronaux pourraient donc jouer un rôle dans la physiologie normale de la synapse, en permettant l'échange d'ARN et de récepteurs aux neurotransmetteurs entre neurones. Ils pourraient également être impliqués dans la propagation de protéines pathogènes comme la toxine du tétanos et la propagation de certaines maladies neurodégénératives comme Alzheimer et Creutzfeldt-Jacob. L'ensemble de nos résultats suggère que les exosomes joueraient un rôle-clé dans le système nerveux central, de par leur implication dans des processus physiologiques et pathologiques.Exosomes are vesicles of endocytic origin released by cells into their environment on fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membrane. They represent a novel mechanism of cell communication by intercellular transfer of proteins, lipids and RNAs. In our laboratory, we are interested in the roles neuronal exosomes could play in the central nervous system. We first showed that mature neurons secrete exosomes and that this is regulated by synaptic glutamatergic activity and by Ca2+ influx. We next demonstrated that the C-terminal part of the tetanus toxin heavy chain can be released in association with neuronal exosomes which can then be taken up by other neurons. Moreover, such a cargo seems to influence the actual fate of the exosome. In order to further examine exosome reuptake, we used exosomes from N2a cells expressing the tetraspanin CD63 fused to the green fluorescent protein, GFP. By incubating cultured hippocampal neurons with GFP-CD63 exosomes, we succeeded in proving that they were found inside the recipient neurons. However, although exosomes are internalized, our results suggest that their traffic is independent of the classical endosomal pathway. We also studied the RNAs contained in the N2a and neuronal exosomes. These were mainly short RNAs (<= 200 nucleotides) including microRNAs 132 and 138. MicroRNAs are key regulators of gene expression. Their transfer by exosomes could represent a new way for fine regulation with a potentially powerful impact on the nervous system. Neuronal exosomes could play a crucial role in the normal physiology of synapses, by allowing the exchange of RNAs and neurotransmitter receptors between neurons. They could also propagate pathogenic proteins such as tetanus toxin and be involved in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Creutzfeldt-Jacob's diseases. Altogether, our results pave the way towards the demonstration that exosomes play an important part in the functioning of the central nervous system via their involvement in physiological and pathological processes.SAVOIE-SCD - Bib.électronique (730659901) / SudocGRENOBLE1/INP-Bib.électronique (384210012) / SudocGRENOBLE2/3-Bib.électronique (384219901) / SudocSudocFranceF

Emerging Role of Neuronal Exosomes in the Central Nervous System

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, which stem from endosomes fusing with the plasma membrane, and can be recaptured by receiving cells. They contain lipids, proteins, and RNAs able to modify the physiology of receiving cells. Functioning of the brain relies on intercellular communication between neural cells. These communications can modulate the strength of responses at sparse groups of specific synapses, to modulate circuits underlying associations and memory. Expression of new genes must then follow to stabilize the long-term modifications of the synaptic response. Local changes of the physiology of synapses from one neuron driven by another, have so far been explained by classical signal transduction to modulate transcription, translation, and posttranslational modifications. In vitro evidence now demonstrates that exosomes are released by neurons in a way depending on synaptic activity; these exosomes can be retaken by other neurons suggesting a novel way for inter-neuronal communication. The efficacy of inter-neuronal transfer of biochemical information allowed by exosomes would be far superior to that of direct cell-to-cell contacts or secreted soluble factors. Indeed, lipids, proteins, and RNAs contained in exosomes secreted by emitting neurons could directly modify signal transduction and protein expression in receiving cells. Exosomes could thus represent an ideal mechanism for inter-neuronal transfer of information allowing anterograde and retrograde signaling across synapses necessary for plasticity. They might also allow spreading across the nervous system of pathological proteins like PrPsc, APP fragments, phosphorylated Tau, or Alpha-synuclein

Exosomes secreted by cortical neurons upon glutamatergic synapse activation specifically interact with neurons

Exosomes are nano-sized vesicles of endocytic origin released into the extracellular space upon fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. Exosomes represent a novel mechanism of cell–cell communication allowing direct transfer of proteins, lipids and RNAs. In the nervous system, both glial and neuronal cells secrete exosomes in a way regulated by glutamate. It has been hypothesized that exosomes can be used for interneuronal communication implying that neuronal exosomes should bind to other neurons with some kind of specificity. Here, dissociated hippocampal cells were used to compare the specificity of binding of exosomes secreted by neuroblastoma cells to that of exosomes secreted by cortical neurons. We found that exosomes from neuroblastoma cells bind indiscriminately to neurons and glial cells and could be endocytosed preferentially by glial cells. In contrast, exosomes secreted from stimulated cortical neurons bound to and were endocytosed only by neurons. Thus, our results demonstrate for the first time that exosomes released upon synaptic activation do not bind to glial cells but selectively to other neurons suggesting that they can underlie a novel aspect of interneuronal communication

Role of transglutaminase 2 in PAC1 receptor mediated protection against hypoxia-induced cell death and neurite outgrowth in differentiating N2a neuroblastoma cells

The PAC1 receptor and tissue transglutaminase (TG2) play important roles in neurite outgrowth and modulation of neuronal cell survival. In this study, we investigated the regulation of TG2 activity by the PAC1 receptor in retinoic acid-induced differentiating N2a neuroblastoma cells. TG2 transamidase activity was determined using an amine incorporation and a peptide cross linking assay. In situ TG2 activity was assessed by visualising the incorporation of biotin-X-cadaverine using confocal microscopy. TG2 phosphorylation was monitored via immunoprecipitation and Western blotting. The role of TG2 in PAC1 receptor-induced cytoprotection and neurite outgrowth was investigated by monitoring hypoxia-induced cell death and appearance of axonal-like processes, respectively. The amine incorporation and protein crosslinking activity of TG2 increased in a time and concentration-dependent manner following stimulation with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide-27 (PACAP-27). PACAP-27 mediated increases in TG2 activity were abolished by the TG2 inhibitors Z-DON and R283 and by pharmacological inhibition of protein kinase A (KT 5720 and Rp-cAMPs), protein kinase C (Ro 31-8220), MEK1/2 (PD 98059), and removal of extracellular Ca2+. Fluorescence microscopy demonstrated PACAP-27 induced in situ TG2 activity. TG2 inhibition blocked PACAP-27 induced attenuation of hypoxia-induced cell death and outgrowth of axon-like processes. TG2 activation and cytoprotection were also observed in human SH-SY5Y cells. Together, these results demonstrate that TG2 activity was stimulated downstream of the PAC1 receptor via a multi protein kinase dependent pathway. Furthermore, PAC1 receptor-induced cytoprotection and neurite outgrowth are dependent upon TG2. These results highlight the importance of TG2 in the cellular functions of the PAC1 receptor

Polyglutamine-Expanded Androgen Receptor Alteration of Skeletal Muscle Homeostasis and Myonuclear Aggregation Are Affected by Sex, Age and Muscle Metabolism

Polyglutamine (polyQ) expansions in the androgen receptor (AR) gene cause spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), a neuromuscular disease characterized by lower motor neuron (MN) loss and skeletal muscle atrophy, with an unknown mechanism. We generated new mouse models of SBMA for constitutive and inducible expression of mutant AR and performed biochemical, histological and functional analyses of phenotype. We show that polyQ-expanded AR causes motor dysfunction, premature death, IIb-to-IIa/IIx fiber-type change, glycolytic-to-oxidative fiber-type switching, upregulation of atrogenes and autophagy genes and mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscle, together with signs of muscle denervation at late stage of disease. PolyQ expansions in the AR resulted in nuclear enrichment. Within the nucleus, mutant AR formed 2% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-resistant aggregates and inclusion bodies in myofibers, but not spinal cord and brainstem, in a process exacerbated by age and sex. Finally, we found that two-week induction of expression of polyQ-expanded AR in adult mice was sufficient to cause premature death, body weight loss and muscle atrophy, but not aggregation, metabolic alterations, motor coordination and fiber-type switch, indicating that expression of the disease protein in the adulthood is sufficient to recapitulate several, but not all SBMA manifestations in mice. These results imply that chronic expression of polyQ-expanded AR, i.e. during development and prepuberty, is key to induce the full SBMA muscle pathology observed in patients. Our data support a model whereby chronic expression of polyQ-expanded AR triggers muscle atrophy through toxic (neomorphic) gain of function mechanisms distinct from normal (hypermorphic) gain of function mechanisms

Neuronal lysosomal dysfunction releases exosomes harboring APP C-terminal fragments and unique lipid signatures

Defects in endolysosomal and autophagic functions are increasingly viewed as key pathological features of neurodegenerative disorders. A master regulator of these functions is phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI3P), a phospholipid synthesized primarily by class III PI 3-kinase Vps34. Here we report that disruption of neuronal Vps34 function in vitro and in vivo impairs autophagy, lysosomal degradation as well as lipid metabolism, causing endolysosomal membrane damage. PI3P deficiency also promotes secretion of unique exosomes enriched for undigested lysosomal substrates, including amyloid precursor protein C-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs), specific sphingolipids, and the phospholipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP), which normally resides in the internal vesicles of endolysosomes. Secretion of these exosomes requires neutral sphingomyelinase 2 and sphingolipid synthesis. Our results reveal a homeostatic response counteracting lysosomal dysfunction via secretion of atypical exosomes eliminating lysosomal waste and define exosomal APP-CTFs and BMP as candidate biomarkers for endolysosomal dysfunction associated with neurodegenerative disorders.Fan Wang for the kind gift of the Pi3kc3flox/flox mice. We thank Basant Abdulrahman and Hermann Schaetzl for providing the gene-edited Atg5 KO N2a cells. We are also grateful to Zhenyu Yue, Ralph Nixon, and Jean Gruenberg for the kind gift of anti-Atg14L, Cathepsin D, and BMP antibodies, respectively. We thank Thomas Südhof for sharing Cre recombinase lentiviruses. We thank the OCS Microscopy Core of New York University Langone Medical Center for the support of the EM work and Rocio Perez-Gonzalez and Efrat Levy of New York University for their support during optimization of the brain exosome isolation technique. We thank Elizabeta Micevska for the maintenance and genotyping of the animal colony and Bowen Zhou for the preliminary lipidomic analysis of conditional Pi3kc3 cKO mice. We also thank Rebecca Williams and Catherine Marquer for critically reading the manuscript. This work was supported by grants from the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (PD/BD/105915/2014 to A.M.M.); the National Institute of Health (R01 NS056049 to G.D.P., transferred to Ron Liem, Columbia University; T32-MH015174 to Rene Hen (Z.M.L.)). Z.M.L. and R.B.C. received pilot grants from ADRC grant P50 AG008702 to S.A.S.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Glia-to-neuron transfer of miRNAs via extracellular vesicles: a new mechanism underlying inflammation-induced synaptic alterations

Recent evidence indicates synaptic dysfunction as an early mechanism affected in neuroinflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, which are characterized by chronic microglia activation. However, the mode(s) of action of reactive microglia in causing synaptic defects are not fully understood. In this study, we show that inflammatory microglia produce extracellular vesicles (EVs) which are enriched in a set of miRNAs that regulate the expression of key synaptic proteins. Among them, miR-146a-5p, a microglia-specific miRNA not present in hippocampal neurons, controls the expression of presynaptic synaptotagmin1 (Syt1) and postsynaptic neuroligin1 (Nlg1), an adhesion protein which play a crucial role in dendritic spine formation and synaptic stability. Using a Renilla-based sensor, we provide formal proof that inflammatory EVs transfer their miR-146a-5p cargo to neuron. By western blot and immunofluorescence analysis we show that vesicular miR-146a-5p suppresses Syt1 and Nlg1 expression in receiving neurons. Microglia-to-neuron miR-146a-5p transfer and Syt1 and Nlg1 downregulation do not occur when EV\ue2\u80\u93neuron contact is inhibited by cloaking vesicular phosphatidylserine residues and when neurons are exposed to EVs either depleted of miR-146a-5p, produced by pro-regenerative microglia, or storing inactive miR-146a-5p, produced by cells transfected with an anti-miR-146a-5p. Morphological analysis reveals that prolonged exposure to inflammatory EVs leads to significant decrease in dendritic spine density in hippocampal neurons in vivo and in primary culture, which is rescued in vitro by transfection of a miR-insensitive Nlg1 form. Dendritic spine loss is accompanied by a decrease in the density and strength of excitatory synapses, as indicated by reduced mEPSC frequency and amplitude. These findings link inflammatory microglia and enhanced EV production to loss of excitatory synapses, uncovering a previously unrecognized role for microglia-enriched miRNAs, released in association to EVs, in silencing of key synaptic genes

neuronal exosomes : role in the intercellular transfer of proteins and RNAs

Les exosomes sont des vésicules d'origine endocytaire sécrétées par les cellules dans leur environnement après fusion des endosomes multivésiculés avec la membrane plasmique. Ils représentent un nouveau moyen de communication cellulaire par le transfert intercellulaire de protéines, de lipides et d'ARN. Dans le laboratoire, nous nous intéressons aux rôles que pourraient jouer les exosomes neuronaux dans le système nerveux central. Nous avons montré que les neurones matures sécrètent des exosomes. Nous avons mis en évidence que cette sécrétion est directement reliée à l'activité synaptique glutamatergique et à une entrée de Ca2+. Nous avons également découvert que la partie C-terminale de la chaîne lourde de la toxine du tétanos peut être sécrétée par voie exosomale. Nous avons observé que les exosomes la contenant sont repris par des neurones en culture. Un tel cargo semble d'ailleurs influencer le devenir des exosomes. De plus, pour étudier la recapture des exosomes, nous avons utilisé des exosomes de cellules N2a exprimant la tétraspanine CD63 fusionnée à la GFP. En incubant des neurones d'hippocampe avec des exosomes GFP-CD63, nous sommes parvenus à démontrer qu'ils étaient endocytés par les neurones receveurs. Cependant, bien que les exosomes semblent avoir été internalisés, nos résultats suggèrent que leur trafic serait indépendant de la voie endocytaire classique. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressé au contenu en ARN des exosomes de N2a et de neurones. Nous avons démontré qu'ils contenaient majoritairement des ARN courts (≤ 200 nucléotides) parmi lesquels, les microARN 132 et 138. Les microARN sont de puissants régulateurs de l'expression génique. Leur transfert, via les exosomes, représenterait une nouvelle voie de régulation très fine et avec un impact conséquent sur le fonctionnement du système nerveux. Les exosomes neuronaux pourraient donc jouer un rôle dans la physiologie normale de la synapse, en permettant l'échange d'ARN et de récepteurs aux neurotransmetteurs entre neurones. Ils pourraient également être impliqués dans la propagation de protéines pathogènes comme la toxine du tétanos et la propagation de certaines maladies neurodégénératives comme Alzheimer et Creutzfeldt-Jacob. L'ensemble de nos résultats suggère que les exosomes joueraient un rôle-clé dans le système nerveux central, de par leur implication dans des processus physiologiques et pathologiques.Exosomes are vesicles of endocytic origin released by cells into their environment on fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membrane. They represent a novel mechanism of cell communication by intercellular transfer of proteins, lipids and RNAs. In our laboratory, we are interested in the roles neuronal exosomes could play in the central nervous system. We first showed that mature neurons secrete exosomes and that this is regulated by synaptic glutamatergic activity and by Ca2+ influx. We next demonstrated that the C-terminal part of the tetanus toxin heavy chain can be released in association with neuronal exosomes which can then be taken up by other neurons. Moreover, such a cargo seems to influence the actual fate of the exosome. In order to further examine exosome reuptake, we used exosomes from N2a cells expressing the tetraspanin CD63 fused to the green fluorescent protein, GFP. By incubating cultured hippocampal neurons with GFP-CD63 exosomes, we succeeded in proving that they were found inside the recipient neurons. However, although exosomes are internalized, our results suggest that their traffic is independent of the classical endosomal pathway. We also studied the RNAs contained in the N2a and neuronal exosomes. These were mainly short RNAs (≤ 200 nucleotides) including microRNAs 132 and 138. MicroRNAs are key regulators of gene expression. Their transfer by exosomes could represent a new way for fine regulation with a potentially powerful impact on the nervous system. Neuronal exosomes could play a crucial role in the normal physiology of synapses, by allowing the exchange of RNAs and neurotransmitter receptors between neurons. They could also propagate pathogenic proteins such as tetanus toxin and be involved in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Creutzfeldt-Jacob's diseases. Altogether, our results pave the way towards the demonstration that exosomes play an important part in the functioning of the central nervous system via their involvement in physiological and pathological processes