Sampling and quantitative analysis methods in anthracology from archaeological contexts: Achievements and prospects

International audienceThis paper provides a critical review of the main methodological achievements in sampling and quantitative analysis in anthracology, the study of wood charcoal macro-remains from archaeological contexts. The application of appropriate sampling protocols is a prerequisite for the study of all types of archaeo-anthracological assemblages, particularly when it comes to the study of wood fuel waste. Sampling directly impacts the quantitative taxonomic composition of a charcoal assemblage and its representativeness with regard to reconstructing ancient woodland composition. The selection of contexts and deposits appropriate for this purpose, the spatial sampling of charcoal scatters, sieving methods and mesh size, what constitutes optimal sample size and the outcomes of charcoal fragmentation, are all discussed. Provided that appropriate methods are followed, the case for the palaeoecological representativeness of archaeo-anthracological fuel waste deposits is argued in detail. This also includes a discussion of the contribution of laboratory experiments to understanding the impacts of combustion and post-depositional processes on archaeological charcoal preservation and the implications of fuelwood properties for wood collection. We argue that ancient firewood use was predicated principally on wood availability in past vegetation and its interdependence with ancient landscape management practices. Lastly, we discuss the application of multivariate methods in anthracology, and the insights they may provide for reconstructing archaeological charcoal taphonomy, and past woodland vegetation and fuel uses.Cet article propose un examen critique des principaux acquis méthodologiques en matière d'échantillonnage et d'analyse quantitative dans le domaine de l'anthracologie, étude des macro-restes de charbons de bois provenant de contextes archéologiques. L'application de protocoles d'échantillonnage appropriés est une condition préalable à l'étude de tous les types d'assemblages archéo-anthracologiques, en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de l'étude des résidus de bois de feu. L'échantillonnage a un impact direct sur la composition taxonomique quantitative d'un assemblage de charbon de bois et sur sa représentativité pour restituer la composition des boisements passés. La sélection des contextes et des dépôts appropriés à cette fin, l'échantillonnage spatial des charbons de bois "dispersés", les méthodes de tamisage et la maille des tamis, la taille optimale de l'échantillon et les conséquences de la fragmentation des charbons de bois, sont traités. Sous réserve que les méthodes appropriées soient suivies, la représentativité paléoécologique des résidus de combustibles archéo-anthracologiques est discutée en détail. Est également inclus un rappel sur la contribution des expérimentations de laboratoire à la compréhension des effets de la combustion et des processus post-dépositionnels sur la préservation des charbons de bois archéologiques et les implications des propriétés du bois de feu concernant la collecte du bois. Nous argumentons le fait que l'utilisation du bois de feu était principalement basée sur la disponibilité du bois dans la végétation environnant les sites, et son interdépendance avec les pratiques anciennes de gestion des milieux. Enfin, nous discutons de l'application de méthodes d'analyse multivariée en anthracologie et des informations qu'elles peuvent fournir pour reconstruire la taphonomie du charbon de bois archéologique, et les utilisations passées de la végétation forestière et du combustibl

The impact of environmental change on Palaeolithic and Mesolithic plant use and the transition to agriculture at Franchthi Cave, Greece

The multi-period (~38,000–6000 cal BP) site of Franchthi Cave, located in the Argolid peninsula of southern mainland Greece, is unique in the Eastern Mediterranean for preserving a long archaeological sequence extending from the Upper Palaeolithic through to the end of the Neolithic period. In this paper, we present new anthracological (carbonized fuel wood waste) evidence from Franchthi Cave with which we reconstruct the changing ecology of woodland vegetation in its environs during the late Pleistocene and the early-mid Holocene. The integrated archaeobotanical record (charred wood and non-wood macro-remains) demonstrates that in the Lateglacial the now-submerged coastal shelf of the southern Argolid peninsula was covered by steppe grassland vegetation dominated by junipers, almonds, cereals and legumes. The rapid climatic amelioration that marked the start of the Holocene brought about the disappearance of juniper and the expansion of deciduous woodland, cereals and lentils. This woodland-grassland biome bears no analogues in the modern and historical vegetation ecology of the Aegean basin. Instead, it is directly comparable to the steppe woodland biomes exploited by late Pleistocene and early Holocene hunter-gatherers in Southwest Asia, and points to the convergent evolution of late Pleistocene and early Holocene plant exploitation strategies between the two regions. Continuous sea-level rise during the early Holocene led to the gradual extinction of this unique palaeohabitat, which acted as the catalyst for the selective introduction of domesticated cereal crops at Franchthi Cave in the early 9th millennium cal BP. Our meta-analysis of the non-wood archaeobotanical data puts into question the concept of the wholesale introduction of a crop “package” by pioneer settler groups arriving from the East. It is proposed instead that selective cereal crop introduction formed part of a complex pattern of sociocultural interactions that brought together indigenous and immigrant groups into new communities

Pathways to plant domestication in Southeast Anatolia based on new data from aceramic Neolithic Gusir Hoyuk

Southeast Anatolia is home to some of the earliest and most spectacular Neolithic sites associated with the beginning of cultivation and herding in the Old World. In this article we present new archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological data from Gusir Hoyuk, an aceramic Neolithic habitation dating to the 12th-late 11th millennia cal BP. Our results show selective use of legume crop progenitors and nuts during the earlier part of this period, followed by the management of cereal and legume crop progenitors from the mid-11th millennium cal BP. This contrasts with data available from other Anatolian habitations indicating broad spectrum plant use with low crop progenitor inputs. Early aceramic Neolithic Anatolian plant and animal exploitation strategies were site-specific, reflecting distinctive identities and culinary choices rather than environmental constraints. A multivariate evaluation of wheat grain metrics alongside botanical and radiometric data indicate that early wheat domestication in southeast Anatolia occurred at a faster pace than predicted by current hypotheses for a protracted transition to farming in Southwest Asia. We argue that this phenomenon is best explained as a corollary of the increasing importance of cereals in feasting at southeast Anatolian sites characterised by increasing architectural complexity and elaboration during the 11th millennium cal BP

Agricultural origins on the Anatolian plateau

This paper explores the explanations for, and consequences of, the early appearance of food production outside the Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia, where it originated in the 10th/9th millennia cal BC. We present evidence that cultivation appeared in Central Anatolia through adoption by indigenous foragers in the mid ninth millennium cal BC, but also demonstrate that uptake was not uniform, and that some communities chose to actively disregard cultivation. Adoption of cultivation was accompanied by experimentation with sheep/goat herding in a system of low-level food production that was integrated into foraging practices rather than used to replace them. Furthermore, rather than being a short-lived transitional state, low-level food production formed part of a subsistence strategy that lasted for several centuries, although its adoption had significant long-term social consequences for the adopting community at Boncuklu. Material continuities suggest that Boncuklu’s community was ancestral to that seen at the much larger settlement of Çatalhöyük East from 7100 cal BC, by which time a modest involvement with food production had been transformed into a major commitment to mixed farming, allowing the sustenance of a very large sedentary community. This evidence from Central Anatolia illustrates that polarized positions explaining the early spread of farming, opposing indigenous adoption to farmer colonization, are unsuited to understanding local sequences of subsistence and related social change. We go beyond identifying the mechanisms for the spread of farming by investigating the shorter- and longer-term implications of rejecting or adopting farming practices.</p

Data analysis in anthracology : Challenges and prospects

International audienceThis paper seeks to provide new insights into issues relating to data analysis and quantification in anthracology as applied to the remains of wood fuel waste found in archaeological sites. Following on from over four decades of research and debate into the quantification potential of anthracological remains, we revisit fuel waste discard patterns and taphonomic considerations based on observations from archaeological case studies. Our aim is to provide a review of the methodological considerations pertinent to the field sampling, laboratory analysis and quantitative analysis of anthracological remains. Finally, we examine some new avenues for data analysis in anthracology, including multivariate analyses, with the aim to stimulate future debate on this issue