Ecological connectivity in the three-dimensional urban green volume using waveform airborne lidar

This is the final version. Available on open access from Nature Research via the DOI in this record.The movements of organisms and the resultant flows of ecosystem services are strongly shaped by landscape connectivity. Studies of urban ecosystems have relied on two-dimensional (2D) measures of greenspace structure to calculate connectivity. It is now possible to explore three-dimensional (3D) connectivity in urban vegetation using waveform lidar technology that measures the full 3D structure of the canopy. Making use of this technology, here we evaluate urban greenspace 3D connectivity, taking into account the full vertical stratification of the vegetation. Using three towns in southern England, UK, all with varying greenspace structures, we describe and compare the structural and functional connectivity using both traditional 2D greenspace models and waveform lidar-generated vegetation strata (namely, grass, shrubs and trees). Measures of connectivity derived from 3D greenspace are lower than those derived from 2D models, as the latter assumes that all vertical vegetation strata are connected, which is rarely true. Fragmented landscapes that have more complex 3D vegetation showed greater functional connectivity and we found highest 2D to 3D functional connectivity biases for short dispersal capacities of organisms (6 m to 16 m). These findings are particularly pertinent in urban systems where the distribution of greenspace is critical for delivery of ecosystem services.This work was funded under the NERC Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Sustainability (BESS) thematic programme for the ‘Fragments Functions and Flows in Urban Ecosystems’ project (Reference: NE/J015237/1; http://bess-urban.group.shef.ac.uk/). The waveform ALS data were acquired by the NERC Airborne Research and Survey Facility (ARSF) and the team from the ARSF Data Analysis Node at Plymouth Marine Laboratory is acknowledged for undertaking initial ALS processing

The role of socio-economic factors in planning and managing urban ecosystem services

How green spaces in cities benefit urban residents depends critically on the interaction between biophysical and socio-economic factors. Urban ecosystem services are affected by both ecosystem characteristics and the social and economic attributes of city dwellers. Yet, there remains little synthesis of the interactions between ecosystem services, urban green spaces, and socio-economic factors. Articulating these linkages is key to their incorporation into ecosystem service planning and management in cities and to ensuring equitable outcomes for city inhabitants. We present a conceptual model of these linkages, describe three major interaction pathways, and explore how to operationalize the model. First, socio-economic factors shape the quantity and quality of green spaces and their ability to supply services by influencing management and planning decisions. Second, variation in socio-economic factors across a city alters people’s desires and needs and thus demands for different ecosystem services. Third, socio-economic factors alter the type and amount of benefit for human wellbeing that a service provides. Integrating these concepts into green space policy, planning, and management would be a considerable improvement on ‘standards-based’ urban green space planning. We highlight the implications of this for facilitating tailored planning solutions to improve ecosystem service benefits across the socio-economic spectrum in cities

Development and reliability of the functional communication classification system for children with cerebral palsy

This paper describes the development, validation, and reliability of the Functional Communication Classification System (FCCS), designed to classify expressive communication skills of children with cerebral palsy (CP) aged 4 years and 5 years (between their fourth and sixth birthdays).The Functional Communication Classification System (FCCS) was developed in 2006 using a literature review, client file audit, and expert consultative committee process in order to devise scale content, structure, and check clinical validity and utility. Interrater reliability was examined between speech-language pathologists (SLPs), other allied health professionals (AHPs), and parents of 48 children with CP. The scale was revised and a clinical reasoning prompt sheet added, then trialled again for 42 children. The result was a five-level system with descriptors and decision-making guides for classification of functional expressive communication for children with CP.Overall interrater reliability was excellent for the final FCCS, intraclass correlation coefficient=0.97 (95% confidence interval 0.95 to 0.98). Kappa values were 0.94 between SLPs and AHPs, 0.59 between SLPs and parents, and 0.60 between AHPs and parents.The FCCS is a reliable tool for describing functional communication in young children with CP, appropriate for use by SLPs, other AHPs, and parents of children with CP

Communication disorders in young children with cerebral palsy

Aim: To test the prediction of communication disorder severity at 5 years of age from characteristics at 2 years for children with cerebral palsy (CP) whose communication is giving cause for concern. Method: In this cohort study, 77 children (52 males; 25 females) with communication difficulties and CP were visited at home at 2 (mean 2y 4mo; SD 3mo) and 5 (mean 5y 5mo; SD 4mo) years of age. Information on the type and distribution of motor disorder, seizures, gross and fine motor function, hearing, and vision were collected from medical notes. Non-verbal cognition, language comprehension, language expression, spoken vocabulary, and methods of communication were assessed directly at age 2 years. At 5 years, communication and speech function were rated using the Communication Function Classification System (CFCS), Functional Communication Classification System (FCCS), and Viking Speech Scale (VSS). Results: In multivariable regression models, CP type, Gross Motor Function Classification System level, vision, the amount of speech understood by strangers, non-verbal cognition, and number of consonants produced at age 2 years predicted the CFCS level at age 5 years (R=0.54). CP type, Manual Ability Classification System level, amount of speech understood, vision, and number of consonants predicted the FCCS level (R=0.49). CP type, amount of speech understood by strangers, and number of consonants predicted the VSS level (R=0.50). Interpretation: Characteristics at 2 years of age predict communication and speech performance at 5 years, and should inform referral to speech and language therapy

The functional communication classification system: extended reliability and concurrent validity for children with cerebral palsy aged 5 to 18 years

To examine psychometric properties and clinical utility of the Functional Communication Classification System (FCCS) for classifying observable communication function in children with cerebral palsy (CP) aged 5 to 18 years.Eighty-two children (38 males, 44 females) with CP in six age groups (5y [n=15], 8y [n=14], 10y [n=14], 12y [n=14], 15y [n=11], and 17y [n=14]) were assessed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) and parent for FCCS ratings. Data were compared with: (1) everyday communication function, assessed using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Fourth Edition Pragmatics Profile (CELF-4 PP) for familiar and unfamiliar partners; (2) motor speech, gross and fine motor function; and (3) associated impairments, including epilepsy, intelligence, hearing, and vision. Interrater agreement was calculated for FCCS ratings using kappa (κ) statistics. Relationships between FCCS ratings and other measures were examined using Spearman's correlation coefficient.Almost perfect interrater agreement was demonstrated between SLP and parent FCCS ratings (κ =0.96). Correlations were excellent between FCCS ratings with CELF-4 PP ratings, motor speech, and intellect; moderate with gross and fine motor function; and fair with other associated impairments (hearing, visual, and epilepsy). There was no correlation between age and FCCS.The FCCS is a reliable and valid communication classification system for children with CP aged 5 to 18 years, and highly suitable for surveillance, research, and clinical purposes.The Functional Communication Classification System (FCCS) is valid and reliable for communication classification in children with cerebral palsy. Excellent agreement is present between speech language pathologists and parents. The FCCS shows excellent correlation with pragmatics, motor speech, and intelligence. The FCCS is moderately correlated with gross and fine motor function. The FCCS has fair correlation with epilepsy, hearing, and vision