O significado da implantação da república romana

Tese de mestrado, História Antiga, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras, 2011O conhecimento das instituições romanas do período arcaico é-nos transmitido por fontes escritas redigidas quatro, cinco séculos mais tarde, o que está na origem de insuficiências, distorções e eventualmente falsificações, as quais, entre outras consequências, terão conduzido a uma percepção daquelas instituições inadequadamente próxima das existentes no período final da República. Procura-se, nesse enquadramento, apresentar as diferentes soluções que a historiografia moderna tem avançado no sentido de responder a tal problema. Uma particular atenção é assim dada ao desenvolvimento das instituições republicanas, algumas das quais herdadas do período monárquico. As dúvidas existentes sobre o próprio momento da implantação da República são objecto de especial ponderação. A natureza da transição entre a Monarquia e a República, brusca ou intermediada por um período tirânico ou por um deperecimento progressivo do rex, é igualmente debatida. Assim como a fase etrusca da Monarquia, parte da qual assimilada por alguns historiadores a uma predominância tirânica de orientação popular, teria correspondido a uma perda de poder da aristocracia gentílica e a uma emergência das instituições da cidade-estado, a implantação da República entender-se-ia como a recuperação do poder por essa aristocracia. A recuperação do poder pela aristocracia gentílica não se terá contudo processado sem um compromisso profundo com as instituições da cidade-estado, as invasões e ameaças que surgiram logo a pós a expulsão do último rei tendo exigido a manutenção de um poder unitário forte. Também a formação e o progressivo fortalecimento de um movimento plebeu, organizando-se como um estado no interior do Estado Patrício, terão exigido deste soluções que não prescindiram da existência de tal poder forte e conduziram inclusivamente a uma integração das referidas instituições plebeias. O período do Decenvirato e o que se lhe seguiu imediatamente terão, a esse respeito, com a aprovação da Lei das Doze Tábuas e das leges Valeriae-Horatiae e com a criação do princípio da igualdade perante a lei, assumido uma importância fundamental.ABSTRACT: The knowledge of the institutions of the archaic period is transmitted to us by written sources originated four, five centuries later, and this is the cause of failures, distortions and possibly forgeries, which, among other consequences, may have led to a perception of these institutions inappropriately close to those existing in the final period of the Republic. Efforts are being made, in this context, to present the different solutions that modern historiography has advanced to respond to this problem. Particular attention is thus given to the development of republican institutions, some of them inherited from the monarchical period. Doubts that exist about the actual date of establishment of the Republic are given special consideration. The nature of the transition between the Monarchy and the Republic, being abrupt or mediated by a tyrannical period or a gradual withering away of the rex, is also discussed. As the etruscan period of the Monarchy – part of which assimilated by some historians to a tyrannical dominance popularly oriented – would have corresponded to a loss of power of the gentilical aristocracy and the emergence of a city-state institutions, the establishment of the Republic, in turn, should be understood as the restoration of power by the aristocracy. The recovery of power by the gentilical aristocracy may not however have occurred without a deep commitment to the institutions of the city-state since the invasions and threats that emerged soon after the expulsion of the last king have required the maintenance of a strong unitary power. Also the creation and gradual strengthening of the plebeian movement, organizing itself as a state within the Patrician State, demanded solutions from this state which did not dispense with the existence of such strong power and even led to an integration of the plebeian institutions. The Decemvirate period and what immediately followed it, have, in this respect, with the approval of the Law of Twelve Tables and the leges Valeriae-Horatiae and the establishment of the principle of equality before the law, assumed paramount importance

Desenvolvimentos imperiais e económicos na Roma republicana: uma introdução

Este trabalho tem como objectivo fundamental estudar o período da República Romana que se estende do início do século IV ao final do século III a.C., privilegiando os desenvolvimentos imperial e económico da sociedade romana e do respectivo enquadramento na área mediterrânea. O estudo não deixa, contudo, de dar atenção a períodos prévios e posteriores de modo a permitir relacionar evoluções mais recentes com dados do passado e a manter presentes elementos sobre evoluções posteriores que não podem ser ignoradas, sobretudo quando se procura explicar situações anteriores para as quais os dados disponibilizados pelas fontes literárias ou pelo arquivo arqueológico se revelam insuficientes. A relativa escassez de dados existentes para o período que vai da conquista de Veios ao final da Segunda Guerra Púnica (capítulos 4 a 6) conduz assim a procurar explicitar elementos relativos ao período seguinte (com maior realce para o século II a.C.), sobretudo em termos de economia e recursos humanos (capítulo 2), que convém não ignorar quando se estuda o passado. Os antecedentes dos desenvolvimentos que são feitos sobre o período de duzentos anos que vão do início do século IV ao final do século III a.C. são apresentados no capítulo 3, enquanto, no que respeita propriamente ao dito período de duzentos anos, é estudada em primeiro lugar a evolução que vai do enfraquecimento político e militar de Roma derivado da incursão gaulesa até à extinção da Liga Latina, de algum modo inaugurando a expansão imperial do Estado Romano. Dáse a seguir atenção ao período que abrange a Segunda e Terceira Guerras Samnitas que se inicia com os avanços romanos na Campânia e na bacia do Médio Líris e que é concluído com a vitória romana em Sentino e a afirmação da respectiva hegemonia na Itália Central. O capítulo 6, começando por considerar o período que se inicia com a Guerra Pírrica e termina com a Península Itálica – em todo o território que se estendia de uma linha que ia de Pisa a Arímino e daí até ao sul da Itália – a passar a ser controlada por Roma, prossegue com o desencadeamento da Primeira Guerra Púnica. Terminada esta guerra com a vitória de Roma, seguem-se acontecimentos que traduzem o começo da expansão imperial romana na planície do Pó e além Adriático. Finalmente, em termos de rivalidades imperiais, tem lugar a Segunda Guerra Púnica, com os seus desenvolvimentos não só na Itália como na Hispânia, na Sicília, além Adriático e, naturalmente, em África. Em termos de desenvolvimentos económicos associados à expansão imperial, que são apresentados ao longo dos diversos capítulos, destacam-se em primeiro lugar as consequências para a sociedade romana da respectiva expansão territorial e demográfica que tem lugar até ao início do século III a.C., dando relevo em seguida aos aspectos de uma economia de cariz guerreiro que acompanham a integração na Comunidade Romana dos povos itálicos. Referem-se depois alguns indicadores do que se pode designar uma Revolução Económica ocorrida nas oito décadas que antecedem a Primeira Guerra Púnica, os quais terão sido precedidos sobretudo por hábitos de consumo que já se haviam manifestado em regiões da Itália como a Magna Grécia e também na Sicília. Com as referências à Primeira Guerra Púnica, são feitas comparações entre as economias de Roma e de Cartago, enfatizando as motivações e as consequências económicas do imperialismo romano com desenvolvimentos que vão das anexações de territórios às reparações de guerra e a possíveis motivações de teor mercantilista, passando pela criação e evolução das grandes explorações agropecuárias. Mais centrados no período da Segunda Guerra Púnica, são apresentados elementos que, fazendo referência a aspectos das finanças públicas romanas do período, procuram explicar como foi feito o financiamento da guerra, sendo também prestada atenção às consequências das devastações operadas pelos exércitos e evoluções noutras áreas, como foi o caso dos desenvolvimentos no domínio monetário, sobretudo os associados à criação do sistema metrológico do denário e à ocorrência de manipulações monetárias. No concernente às referidas devastações e às suas consequências sobre o abastecimento das populações e dos exércitos, é dado relevo à respectiva evolução no tempo, realçando a transição ocasionada pela retoma por Roma do controlo do território no período que sucedeu à estabilização militar na Campânia e na Sicília.This work has as its fundamental objective the study of the period of the Roman Republic that extends from the beginning of the 4th century to the end of the 3rd century BC, favouring the imperial and economic developments of the Roman society and its territorial surroundings in the Mediterranean area. However, the study does not fail to pay attention to the previous and subsequent periods in order to make it possible to relate more recent developments with data from the past and to keep in mind elements about later developments that cannot be ignored, especially when trying to explain previous situations, whose data, made available by literary sources or by the archaeological archive, are insufficient. The relative scarcity of existing data for the period from the conquest of Veii to the end of the Second Punic War (chapters 4 to 6) thus leads to an attempt to explain elements related to the following period (with greater emphasis on the 2nd century BC), especially in terms of economics and human resources (chapter 2), which should not be ignored when studying the past. The antecedents of the developments that are made over the period of two hundred years from the beginning of the fourth century to the end of the third century BC are presented in chapter 3, while, as regards the latter period, the evolution that goes from the political and military weakening of Rome derived from the Gallic incursion until the extinction of the Latin League is studied in the first place, somehow inaugurating the imperial expansion of the Roman State. Next, attention is given to the period covering the Second and Third Samnite Wars, which begins with the Roman intrusions in Campania and the Middle Liris basin and ends with the Roman victory in Sentino and the affirmation of the respective hegemony in Central Italy. Chapter 6, starting by paying attention to the period that begins with the Pyrrhic War and ends with the Italic Peninsula being controlled by Rome throughout the territory that stretched from a line that went from Pisa to Arimino and from there to the southern Italy, continues with the outbreak of the First Punic War. This war being finished with the victory of Rome, events follow that reflect the beginning of the Roman imperial expansion in the Po plain and beyond Adriatic. Lastly, in terms of imperial rivalries, the Second Punic War takes place, with its developments not only in Italy but also in Hispania, Sicily, beyond Adriatic and, of course, in Africa. Concerning economic developments associated with the imperial expansion, which are presented throughout the various chapters, consequences for Roman society of the respective territorial and demographic expansion that take place until the beginning of the third century BC stand out, giving prominence next to the aspects of a warrior-like economy that go together with the integration of the Italic peoples in the Roman Community. Some indicators of what can be called an Economic Revolution that occurred in the eight decades preceding the First Punic War are then referred to, which have been preceded above all by consumption habits that had already manifested in regions of Italy such as Magna Grecia and also in Sicily. With the references made to the First Punic War, comparisons are made between the economies of Rome and Carthage, emphasizing the motivations and the economic consequences of Roman imperialism with developments ranging from annexations of territories to war indemnities and to possible mercantile motivations, going through the creation and evolution of large agricultural and livestock holdings. More focused on the period of the Second Punic War, elements are presented that, giving details on the Roman public finances of the period, seek to explain how the war was financed, while also paying attention to the consequences of the devastations carried out by armies and occurrences in other areas, as was the case with developments in the monetary domain, especially those associated with the creation of the metrological system of the denarius and the incidence of monetary manipulations. With regard to the aforementioned devastations and their consequences on the food supplies to populations and armies, attention is paid to their evolution over time, highlighting the transition caused by the retaking of control by Rome of the territory in the period that followed the military stabilization in Campania and in Sicily

Pervasive gaps in Amazonian ecological research

Biodiversity loss is one of the main challenges of our time,1,2 and attempts to address it require a clear un derstanding of how ecological communities respond to environmental change across time and space.3,4 While the increasing availability of global databases on ecological communities has advanced our knowledge of biodiversity sensitivity to environmental changes,5–7 vast areas of the tropics remain understudied.8–11 In the American tropics, Amazonia stands out as the world’s most diverse rainforest and the primary source of Neotropical biodiversity,12 but it remains among the least known forests in America and is often underrepre sented in biodiversity databases.13–15 To worsen this situation, human-induced modifications16,17 may elim inate pieces of the Amazon’s biodiversity puzzle before we can use them to understand how ecological com munities are responding. To increase generalization and applicability of biodiversity knowledge,18,19 it is thus crucial to reduce biases in ecological research, particularly in regions projected to face the most pronounced environmental changes. We integrate ecological community metadata of 7,694 sampling sites for multiple or ganism groups in a machine learning model framework to map the research probability across the Brazilian Amazonia, while identifying the region’s vulnerability to environmental change. 15%–18% of the most ne glected areas in ecological research are expected to experience severe climate or land use changes by 2050. This means that unless we take immediate action, we will not be able to establish their current status, much less monitor how it is changing and what is being lostinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Pervasive gaps in Amazonian ecological research

Biodiversity loss is one of the main challenges of our time,1,2 and attempts to address it require a clear understanding of how ecological communities respond to environmental change across time and space.3,4 While the increasing availability of global databases on ecological communities has advanced our knowledge of biodiversity sensitivity to environmental changes,5,6,7 vast areas of the tropics remain understudied.8,9,10,11 In the American tropics, Amazonia stands out as the world's most diverse rainforest and the primary source of Neotropical biodiversity,12 but it remains among the least known forests in America and is often underrepresented in biodiversity databases.13,14,15 To worsen this situation, human-induced modifications16,17 may eliminate pieces of the Amazon's biodiversity puzzle before we can use them to understand how ecological communities are responding. To increase generalization and applicability of biodiversity knowledge,18,19 it is thus crucial to reduce biases in ecological research, particularly in regions projected to face the most pronounced environmental changes. We integrate ecological community metadata of 7,694 sampling sites for multiple organism groups in a machine learning model framework to map the research probability across the Brazilian Amazonia, while identifying the region's vulnerability to environmental change. 15%–18% of the most neglected areas in ecological research are expected to experience severe climate or land use changes by 2050. This means that unless we take immediate action, we will not be able to establish their current status, much less monitor how it is changing and what is being lost

Núcleos de Ensino da Unesp: artigos 2008

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq

NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES: a data set on carnivore distribution in the Neotropics

Mammalian carnivores are considered a key group in maintaining ecological health and can indicate potential ecological integrity in landscapes where they occur. Carnivores also hold high conservation value and their habitat requirements can guide management and conservation plans. The order Carnivora has 84 species from 8 families in the Neotropical region: Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Otariidae; Phocidae; Procyonidae; and Ursidae. Herein, we include published and unpublished data on native terrestrial Neotropical carnivores (Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Procyonidae; and Ursidae). NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES is a publicly available data set that includes 99,605 data entries from 35,511 unique georeferenced coordinates. Detection/non-detection and quantitative data were obtained from 1818 to 2018 by researchers, governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and private consultants. Data were collected using several methods including camera trapping, museum collections, roadkill, line transect, and opportunistic records. Literature (peer-reviewed and grey literature) from Portuguese, Spanish and English were incorporated in this compilation. Most of the data set consists of detection data entries (n = 79,343; 79.7%) but also includes non-detection data (n = 20,262; 20.3%). Of those, 43.3% also include count data (n = 43,151). The information available in NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES will contribute to macroecological, ecological, and conservation questions in multiple spatio-temporal perspectives. As carnivores play key roles in trophic interactions, a better understanding of their distribution and habitat requirements are essential to establish conservation management plans and safeguard the future ecological health of Neotropical ecosystems. Our data paper, combined with other large-scale data sets, has great potential to clarify species distribution and related ecological processes within the Neotropics. There are no copyright restrictions and no restriction for using data from this data paper, as long as the data paper is cited as the source of the information used. We also request that users inform us of how they intend to use the data

NEOTROPICAL ALIEN MAMMALS: a data set of occurrence and abundance of alien mammals in the Neotropics

Biological invasion is one of the main threats to native biodiversity. For a species to become invasive, it must be voluntarily or involuntarily introduced by humans into a nonnative habitat. Mammals were among first taxa to be introduced worldwide for game, meat, and labor, yet the number of species introduced in the Neotropics remains unknown. In this data set, we make available occurrence and abundance data on mammal species that (1) transposed a geographical barrier and (2) were voluntarily or involuntarily introduced by humans into the Neotropics. Our data set is composed of 73,738 historical and current georeferenced records on alien mammal species of which around 96% correspond to occurrence data on 77 species belonging to eight orders and 26 families. Data cover 26 continental countries in the Neotropics, ranging from Mexico and its frontier regions (southern Florida and coastal-central Florida in the southeast United States) to Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay, and the 13 countries of Caribbean islands. Our data set also includes neotropical species (e.g., Callithrix sp., Myocastor coypus, Nasua nasua) considered alien in particular areas of Neotropics. The most numerous species in terms of records are from Bos sp. (n = 37,782), Sus scrofa (n = 6,730), and Canis familiaris (n = 10,084); 17 species were represented by only one record (e.g., Syncerus caffer, Cervus timorensis, Cervus unicolor, Canis latrans). Primates have the highest number of species in the data set (n = 20 species), partly because of uncertainties regarding taxonomic identification of the genera Callithrix, which includes the species Callithrix aurita, Callithrix flaviceps, Callithrix geoffroyi, Callithrix jacchus, Callithrix kuhlii, Callithrix penicillata, and their hybrids. This unique data set will be a valuable source of information on invasion risk assessments, biodiversity redistribution and conservation-related research. There are no copyright restrictions. Please cite this data paper when using the data in publications. We also request that researchers and teachers inform us on how they are using the data

Núcleos de Ensino da Unesp: artigos 2007

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq

Brazilian Flora 2020: Leveraging the power of a collaborative scientific network

International audienceThe shortage of reliable primary taxonomic data limits the description of biological taxa and the understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes, complicating biogeographical, ecological, and evolutionary studies. This deficit creates a significant taxonomic impediment to biodiversity research and conservation planning. The taxonomic impediment and the biodiversity crisis are widely recognized, highlighting the urgent need for reliable taxonomic data. Over the past decade, numerous countries worldwide have devoted considerable effort to Target 1 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC), which called for the preparation of a working list of all known plant species by 2010 and an online world Flora by 2020. Brazil is a megadiverse country, home to more of the world's known plant species than any other country. Despite that, Flora Brasiliensis, concluded in 1906, was the last comprehensive treatment of the Brazilian flora. The lack of accurate estimates of the number of species of algae, fungi, and plants occurring in Brazil contributes to the prevailing taxonomic impediment and delays progress towards the GSPC targets. Over the past 12 years, a legion of taxonomists motivated to meet Target 1 of the GSPC, worked together to gather and integrate knowledge on the algal, plant, and fungal diversity of Brazil. Overall, a team of about 980 taxonomists joined efforts in a highly collaborative project that used cybertaxonomy to prepare an updated Flora of Brazil, showing the power of scientific collaboration to reach ambitious goals. This paper presents an overview of the Brazilian Flora 2020 and provides taxonomic and spatial updates on the algae, fungi, and plants found in one of the world's most biodiverse countries. We further identify collection gaps and summarize future goals that extend beyond 2020. Our results show that Brazil is home to 46,975 native species of algae, fungi, and plants, of which 19,669 are endemic to the country. The data compiled to date suggests that the Atlantic Rainforest might be the most diverse Brazilian domain for all plant groups except gymnosperms, which are most diverse in the Amazon. However, scientific knowledge of Brazilian diversity is still unequally distributed, with the Atlantic Rainforest and the Cerrado being the most intensively sampled and studied biomes in the country. In times of “scientific reductionism”, with botanical and mycological sciences suffering pervasive depreciation in recent decades, the first online Flora of Brazil 2020 significantly enhanced the quality and quantity of taxonomic data available for algae, fungi, and plants from Brazil. This project also made all the information freely available online, providing a firm foundation for future research and for the management, conservation, and sustainable use of the Brazilian funga and flora