Análisis molecular de los cambios evolutivos en poblaciones de Ophiostoma novo-ulmi

The spread of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi across Europe, North America and central Asia, resulted in the current, highly destructive Dutch elm disease (DED) pandemic, replacing O. ulmi, responsible for the first DED pandemic in the early 1900s. This process has resulted in a series of remarkable evolutionary and adaptive developments. Studies of O. novo- ulmi populations in the 1980s, especially in Spain and Portugal, showed the following: 1) that O. novo-ulmi initially spread across Europe as a series of genetic clones; 2) that deleterious RNA viruses were transmitted within the O. novo-ulmi clones; 3) that natural hybrids between O. novo-ulmi subspecies americana and subsp. novo-ulmi, emerged widely across Europe; 4) that there has also been a widespread emergence, across Europe, of natural hybrids between O. novo-ulmi subspecies americana and also subsp. novo-ulmi. The factors driving these changes have been examined by molecular analysis. Results show: 1) that the rapid change from clonality to genetic variability involved the acquisition of ‘useful’ mating type, vegetative compatibility type and other genes by O. novo-ulmi from O. ulmi via lateral (or interspecies) gene transfer; whereas ‘unuseful’ O. ulmi genes were discarded; 2) that the RNA viruses occurring in the O. novo-ulmi populations probably originated from O. ulmi; and 3) and that where O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana and subsp. novo-ulmi co-exist, natural hybrids are occurring very freely; in some areas most O. novo-ulmi isolates are already complex subspp. americana x novo-ulmi hybrids. These phenomena features are unique, and have considerable implications for the invasion history, successful spread and future behaviour of O. novo-ulmi.La expansión de Ophiostoma novo-ulmi en Europa, Norteamérica y Asia central provocó la actual pandemia de grafiosis, altamente destructiva, y reemplazó a O. ulmi, responsable de la primera pandemia de grafiosis a principios del siglo XX. Este proceso ha provocado una serie de destacables desarrollos evolutivos y adaptativos. Los estudios realizados en la década de 1980 en poblaciones de O. novo-ulmi, especialmente en España y Portugal, mostraron lo siguiente: 1) que inicialmente O. novo-ulmi se expandió a través de Europa como una serie de clones genéticos; 2) que virus deletéreos de RNA se trsmitieron dentro de los clones de O. novo-ulmi; 3) que híbridos naturales entre las subespecies americana y novo-ulmi de O. novo-ulmi aparecieron en muchas zonas de Europa; 4) que en toda Europa está surgiendo un gran número de híbridos naturales entre las subespecies americana y novo-ulmi de O. novo-ulmi. Los factores conducentes a estos cambios han sido examinados mediante análisis molecular. Los resultados son: 1) que el rápido paso desde una situación de clonalidad a otra con gran variabilidad genética supuso la aparición de formas «utiles» para el apareamiento, formas con compatibilidad vegetativa, y otros genes de O. novo-ulmi por transferencia lateral (o interespecífica) a partir de O. ulmi; mientras que se descartó la presencia de genes «inútiles» de O. ulmi; 2) que los virus ARN presentes en las poblaciones de O. novo-ulmi se originaron probablemente a partir de O. ulmi; y 3) que en los lugares donde O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana y subsp. novo-ulmi coexisten, los híbridos naturales se generan libremente; en algunas áreas la mayor parte de los O. novo-ulmi aislados son en realidad complejos híbridos subsp. americana x subsp. novo-ulmi. Estas características son únicas, y tiene considerable implicaciones para la historia invasora, la exitosa dispersión y el futuro comportamiento de O. novo-ulmi

Detecting ancient life : Investigating the nature and origin of possible stromatolites and associated calcite from a one billion year old lake

ATB acknowledges the hospitality of the North West Highlands Geopark in July 2017. DW acknowledges funding from the Australian Research Council via the Future Fellowship scheme (FT 140100321).Peer reviewedPostprin

Observations of reservoir quality alteration in proximity to igneous intrusions for two distinct sandstones units in Scotland

Acknowledgements We thank the reviewers and editor for their helpful comments which greatly improved this manuscript. Thanks to John Still from the University of Aberdeen (ACEMAC ) for guidance with SEM/EDS, Colin Taylor for MICP tests and Walter Ritchie for making thin sections. Lorenza Sardisco and Jonathan Wilkins at X-Ray Minerals for XRD analysis and Prof. M.J. Wilson from the James Hutton Institute for valuable discussion of XRD results. Dave Healy acknowledges the support of the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC, UK) through the award NE/N003063/1 ‘Quantifying the Anisotropy of Permeability in Stressed Rock’.Peer reviewedPostprin

Paleoecology and paleoceanography of the Athel silicilyte, Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary, Sultanate of Oman

The Athel silicilyte is an enigmatic, hundreds of meters thick, finely laminated quartz deposit, in which silica precipitated in deep water (>~100–200 m) at the Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary in the South Oman Salt Basin. In contrast, Meso-Neoproterozoic sinks for marine silica were dominantly restricted to peritidal settings. The silicilyte is known to contain sterane biomarkers for demosponges, which today are benthic, obligately aerobic organisms. However, the basin has previously been described as permanently sulfidic and time-equivalent shallow-water carbonate platform and evaporitic facies lack silica. The Athel silicilyte thus represents a unique and poorly understood depositional system with implications for late Ediacaran marine chemistry and paleoecology. To address these issues, we made petrographic observations, analyzed biomarkers in the solvent-extractable bitumen, and measured whole-rock iron speciation and oxygen and silicon isotopes. These data indicate that the silicilyte is a distinct rock type both in its sedimentology and geochemistry and in the original biology present as compared to other facies from the same time period in Oman. The depositional environment of the silicilyte, as compared to the bounding shales, appears to have been more reducing at depth in sediments and possibly bottom waters with a significantly different biological community contributing to the preserved biomarkers. We propose a conceptual model for this system in which deeper, nutrient-rich waters mixed with surface seawater via episodic mixing, which stimulated primary production. The silica nucleated on this organic matter and then sank to the seafloor, forming the silicilyte in a sediment-starved system. We propose that the silicilyte may represent a type of environment that existed elsewhere during the Neoproterozoic. These environments may have represented an important locus for silica removal from the oceans

Residents\u27 Perceptions of Community and Environmental Impacts From Development of Natural Gas in the Marcellus Shale: A Comparison of Pennsylvania and New York Cases

Communities experiencing rapid growth due to energy development (‘boomtowns’) have reported positive and negative impacts on community and individual well-being. The perceptions of impacts vary according to stage of energy development as well as experience with extractive industries. Development of the Marcellus Shale provides an opportunity to examine these impacts over time and across geographic and historical contexts. This paper describes case study research in Pennsylvania and New York to document preliminary impacts of development occurring there. Cases vary by level of development and previous extractive history. The study finds that, in areas with low population density, higher levels of development lead to a broader awareness of natural gas impacts, both positive and negative. Participants draw from the regional history of extraction to express environmental concern despite direct, local experience. Our findings suggest the need to track these perceptions during development, and as individuals and communities react and adapt to the impacts

8-Oxoguanine DNA glycosylase-1-mediated DNA repair is associated with Rho GTPase activation and α-smooth muscle actin polymerization

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are activators of cell signaling and modify cellular molecules, including DNA. 8-Oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG) is one of the prominent lesions in oxidatively damaged DNA, whose accumulation is causally linked to various diseases and aging processes, whereas its etiological relevance is unclear. 8-OxoG is repaired by the 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase-1 (OGG1)-initiated DNA base excision repair (BER) pathway. OGG1 binds free 8-oxoG and this complex functions as an activator of Ras family GTPases. Here we examined whether OGG1-initiated BER is associated with the activation of Rho GTPase and mediates changes in the cytoskeleton. To test this possibility, we induced OGG1- initiated BER in cultured cells and mouse lungs and used molecular approaches such as active Rho pull- down assays, siRNA ablation of gene expression, immune blotting, and microscopic imaging. We found that OGG1 physically interacts with Rho GTPase and, in the presence of 8-oxoG base, increases Rho–GTP levels in cultured cells and lungs, which mediates α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) polymerization into stress fibers and increases the level of α-SMA in insoluble cellular/tissue fractions. These changes were absent in cells lacking OGG1. These unexpected data and those showing that 8-oxoG repair is a lifetime process suggest that, via Rho GTPase, OGG1 could be involved in the cytoskeletal changes and organ remodeling observed in various chronic diseases

Response of Quercus ilex seedlings to Phytophthora spp. root infection in a soil infestation test

[EN] Phytophthora species are the main agents associated with oak (Quercus spp.) decline, together with the changing environmental conditions and the intensive land use. The aim of this study was to evaluate the susceptibility of Quercus ilex to the inoculation with eight Phytophthora species. Seven to eight month old Q. ilex seedlings grown from acorns, obtained from two Spanish origins, were inoculated with P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. gonapodyides, P. megasperma, P. nicotianae, P. plurivora, P. psychrophila and P. quercina. All Phytophthora inoculated seedlings showed decline and symptoms including small dark necrotic root lesions, root cankers, and loss of fine roots and tap root. The most aggressive species were P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. gonapodyides, P. plurivora and P. psychrophila followed by P. megasperma., while Phytophthora quercina and P. nicotianae were the less aggressive species. Results obtained confirm that these Phytophthora species could constituted a threat to Q. ilex ecosystems and the implications are further discussed.The authors are grateful to A. Solla and his team from the Centro Universitario de Plasencia-Universidad de Extremadura (Spain) for helping in the acorns collection and to the CIEF (Centro para la Investigación y Experimentación Forestal, Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain) for providing the acorns. This research was supported by funding from the project AGL2011- 30438-C02-01 (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain).Mora-Sala, B.; Abad Campos, P.; Berbegal Martinez, M. (2018). Response of Quercus ilex seedlings to Phytophthora spp. root infection in a soil infestation test. European Journal of Plant Pathology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-018-01650-6SÁlvarez, L. A., Pérez-Sierra, A., Armengol, J., & García-Jiménez, J. (2007). Characterization of Phytophthora nicotianae isolates causing collar and root rot of lavender and rosemary in Spain. Journal of Plant Pathology, 89, 261–264.Balci, Y., & Halmschlager, E. (2003a). Incidence of Phytophthora species in oak forests in Austria and their possible involvement in oak decline. Forest Pathology, 33, 157–174.Balci, Y., & Halmschlager, E. (2003b). Phytophthora species in oak ecosystems in Turkey and their association with declining oak trees. Plant Pathology, 52, 694–702.Brasier, C. M. (1992a). Oak tree mortality in Iberia. Nature, 360, 539.Brasier, C. M. ((1992b)). Phytophthora cinnamomi as a contributory factor on European oak declines. In N. by Luisi, P. Lerario, & A. B. Vannini (Eds.), Recent Advances in Studies on Oak Decline. Proc. Int. Congress, Brindisi, Italy, September 13-18, 1992 (pp. 49–58). Italy: Università degli Studi.Brasier, C. M. (1996). Phytophthora cinnamomi and oak decline in southern Europe. Environmental constraints including climate change. Annales des Sciences Forestieres, 53, 347–358.Brasier, C. M. (2008). The biosecurity threat to the UK and global environment from international trade in plants. Plant Pathology, 57, 792–808.Brasier, C. M., Hamm, P. B., & Hansen, E. M. (1993a). Cultural characters, protein patterns and unusual mating behaviour of P. gonapodyides isolates from Britain and North America. Mycological Research, 97, 1287–1298.Brasier, C. M., Robredo, F., & Ferraz, J. F. P. (1993b). Evidence for Phytophthora cinnamomi involvement in Iberian oak decline. Plant Pathology, 42, 140–145.Camilo-Alves, C. S. P., Clara, M. I. E., & Ribeiro, N. M. C. A. (2013). Decline of Mediterranean oak trees and its association with Phytophthora cinnamomi: a review. European Journal of Forest Research, 132, 411–432.Català, S., Berbegal, M., Pérez-Sierra, A., & Abad-Campos, P. (2017). Metabarcoding and development of new real-time specific assays reveal Phytophthora species diversity in holm oak forests in eastern Spain. Plant Pathology, 66, 115–123.Collett, D. (2003). Modelling survival data in medical research (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC, 410 pp.Corcobado, T., Cubera, E., Pérez-Sierra, A., Jung, T., & Solla, A. (2010). First report of Phytophthora gonapodyides involved in the decline of Quercus ilex in xeric conditions in Spain. New Disease Reports, 22, 33.Corcobado, T., Cubera, E., Moreno, G., & Solla, A. (2013). Quercus ilex forests are influenced by annual variations in water table, soil water deficit and fine root loss caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 169, 92–99.Corcobado, T., Vivas, M., Moreno, G., & Solla, A. (2014). Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis in declining and non-declining Quercus ilex trees infected with or free of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Forest Ecology and Management, 324, 72–80.Corcobado, T., Miranda-Torres, J. J., Martín-García, J., Jung, T., & Solla, A. (2017). Early survival of Quercus ilex subspecies from different populations after infections and co-infections by multiple Phytophthora species. Plant Pathology, 66, 792–804.Erwin, D. C., & Ribeiro, O. K. (1996). Phytophthora diseases worldwide. St. Paul, Minnesota,USA: APS Press, American Phytopathological. Society 562pp.Gallego, F. J., Perez de Algaba, A., & Fernandez-Escobar, R. (1999). Etiology of oak decline in Spain. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 29, 17–27.Hansen, E., & Delatour, C. (1999). Phytophthora species in oak forests of north-east France. Annals of Forest Science, 56, 539–547.Hardham, A. R., & Blackman, L. M. (2010). Molecular cytology of Phytophthora plant interactions. Australasian Plant Pathology, 39, 29.Hernández-Lambraño, R. E., González-Moreno, P., & Sánchez-Agudo, J. Á. (2018). Environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of invasive plant pathogens in the Iberian Peninsula: The case of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. Forest Ecology and Management, 419, 101–109.Jankowiak, R., Stępniewska, H., Bilański, P., & Kolařík, M. (2014). Occurrence of Phytophthora plurivora and other Phytophthora species in oak forests of southern Poland and their association with site conditions and the health status of trees. Folia Microbiologica, 59, 531–542.Jeffers, S. N., & Aldwinckle, H. S. (1987). Enhancing detection of Phytophthora cactorum in naturally infested soil. Phytopathology, 77, 1475–1482.Jiménez, A. J., Sánchez, E. J., Romero, M. A., Belbahri, L., Trapero, A., Lefort, F., & Sánchez, M. E. (2008). Pathogenicity of Pythium spiculum and P. sterilum on feeder roots of Quercus rotundifolia. Plant Pathology, 57, 369.Jönsson, U. (2006). A conceptual model for the development of Phytophthora disease in Quercus robur. New Phytologist, 171, 55–68.Jönsson, U., Jung, T., Rosengren, U., Nihlgard, B., & Sonesson, K. (2003). Pathogenicity of Swedish isolates of Phytophthora quercina to Quercus robur in two different soils. New Phytologist, 158, 355–364.Jung, T., & Burgess, T. I. (2009). Re-evaluation of Phytophthora citricola isolates from multiple woody hosts in Europe and North America reveals a new species, Phytophthora plurivora sp. nov. Persoonia, 22, 95–110.Jung, T., Blaschke, H., & Neumann, P. (1996). Isolation, identification and pathogenicity of Phytophthora species from declining oak stands. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 26, 253–272.Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Blaschke, H., Duncan, J. M., & Oßwald, W. (1999). Phytophthora quercina sp. nov., causing root rot of European oaks. Mycological Research, 103, 785–798.Jung, T., Blaschke, H., & Oßwald, W. (2000). Involvement of soilborne Phytophthora species in Central European oak decline and the effect of site factors on the disease. Plant Pathology, 49, 706–718.Jung, T., Hansen, E. M., Winton, L., Oßwald, W., & Delatour, C. (2002). Three new species of Phytophthora from European oak forests. Mycological Research, 106, 397–411.Jung, T., Orlikowski, L., Henricot, B., Abad-Campos, P., Aday, A. G., Aguín Casal, O., Bakonyi, J., Cacciola, S. O., Cech, T., Chavarriaga, D., Corcobado, T., Cravador, A., Decourcelle, T., Denton, G., Diamandis, S., Dogmus-Lehtijärvi, H. T., Franceschini, A., Ginetti, B., Glavendekic, M., Hantula, J., Hartmann, G., Herrero, M., Ivic, D., Horta Jung, M., Lilja, A., Keca, N., Kramarets, V., Lyubenova, A., Machado, H., Magnano di San Lio, G., Mansilla Vázquez, P. J., Marçais, B., Matsiakh, I., Milenkovic, I., Moricca, S., Nagy, Z. Á., Nechwatal, J., Olsson, C., Oszako, T., Pane, A., Paplomatas, E. J., Pintos Varela, C., Prospero, S., Rial Martínez, C., Rigling, D., Robin, C., Rytkönen, A., Sánchez, M. E., Scanu, B., Schlenzig, A., Schumacher, J., Slavov, S., Solla, A., Sousa, E., Stenlid, J., Talgø, V., Tomic, Z., Tsopelas, P., Vannini, A., Vettraino, A. M., Wenneker, M., Woodward, S., & Peréz-Sierra, A. (2016). Widespread Phytophthora infestations in European nurseries put forest, semi-natural and horticultural ecosystems at high risk of Phytophthora diseases. Forest Pathology, 46, 134–163.Kroon, L. P., Brouwer, H., de Cock, A. W., & Govers, F. (2012). The genus Phytophthora anno 2012. Phytopathology, 102, 348–364.Linaldeddu, B. T., Scanu, B., Maddau, L., & Franceschini, A. (2014). Diplodia corticola and Phytophthora cinnamomi: the main pathogens involved in holm oak decline on Caprera Island (Italy). Forest Pathology, 44, 191–200.Luque, J., Parladé, J., & Pera, J. (2000). Pathogenicity of fungi isolated from Quercus suber in Catalonia (NE Spain). Forest Pathology, 30, 247–263.Luque, J., Parladé, J., & Pera, J. (2002). Seasonal changes in susceptibility of Quercus suber to Botryosphaeria stevensii and Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Pathology, 51, 338–345.MAGRAMA. (2014). Diagnóstico del Sector Forestal Español. Análisis y Prospectiva - Serie Agrinfo/Medioambiente n° 8. Ed. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. In NIPO: 280-14-081-9.Martín-García, J., Solla, A., Corcobado, T., Siasou, E., & Woodward, S. (2015). Influence of temperature on germination of Quercus ilex in Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. gonapodyides, P. quercina and P. psychrophila infested soils. Forest Pathology, 45, 215–223.Maurel, M., Robin, C., Capron, G., & Desprez-Loustau, M. L. (2001). Effects of root damage associated with Phytophthora cinnamomi on water elations, biomass accumulation, mineral nutrition and vulnerability to water deficit of five oak and chestnut species. Forest Pathology, 31, 353–369.McKinney, H. H. (1923). Influence of soil temperature and moisture on infection of wheat seedlings by Helminthosporium sativum. Journal of Agricultural Research, 26, 195–217.Moralejo, E., Pérez-Sierra, A., Álvarez, L. A., Belbahri, L., Lefort, F., & Descals, E. (2009). Multiple alien Phytophthora taxa discovered on diseased ornamental plants in Spain. Plant Pathology, 58, 100–110.Mora-Sala, B., Berbegal, M., & Abad-Campos, P. (2018). The use of qPCR reveals a high frequency of Phytophthora quercina in two Spanish holm oak areas. Forests, 9(11):697. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9110697 .Moreira, A. C., & Martins, J. M. S. (2005). Influence of site factors on the impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi in cork oak stands in Portugal. Forest Pathology, 35, 145–162.Mrázková, M., Černý, K., Tomosovsky, M., Strnadová, V., Gregorová, B., Holub, V., Panek, M., Havrdová, L., & Hejná, M. (2013). Occurrence of Phytophthora multivora and Phytophthora plurivora in the Czech Republic. Plant Protection Science, 49, 155–164.Navarro, R. M., Gallo, L., Sánchez, M. E., Fernández, P., & Trapero, A. (2004). Efecto de distintas fertilizaciones de fósforo en la resistencia de brinzales de encina y alcornoque a Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. Investigación Agraria. Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, 13, 550–558.Panabières, F., Ali, G., Allagui, M., Dalio, R., Gudmestad, N., Kuhn, M., Guha Roy, S., Schena, L., & Zampounis, A. (2016). Phytophthora nicotianae diseases worldwide: new knowledge of a long-recognised pathogen. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 55, 20–40.Pérez-Sierra, A., & Jung, T. (2013). Phytophthora in woody ornamental nurseries. In: Phytophthora: A global perspective (pp. 166-177). Ed. by Lamour, K. Wallingford: CABI.Pérez-Sierra, A., Mora-Sala, B., León, M., García-Jiménez, J., & Abad-Campos, P. (2012). Enfermedades causadas por Phytophthora en viveros de plantas ornamentales. Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal-Plagas, 38, 143–156.Pérez-Sierra, A., López-García, C., León, M., García-Jiménez, J., Abad-Campos, P., & Jung, T. (2013). Previously unrecorded low-temperature Phytophthora species associated with Quercus decline in a Mediterranean forest in eastern Spain. Forest Pathology, 43, 331–339.Redondo, M. A., Pérez-Sierra, A., & Abad-Campos, P. (2015). Histology of Quercus ilex roots during infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Trees - Structure and Function, 29, 1943–5197.Ríos, P., Obregón, S., de Haro, A., Fernández-Rebollo, P., Serrano, M. S., & Sánchez, M. E. (2016). Effect of Brassica Biofumigant Amendments on Different Stages of the Life Cycle of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Journal of Phytopathology, 164, 582–594.Rizzo, D. M., Garbelotto, M., Davidson, J. M., Slaughter, G. W., & Koike, S. T. (2002). Phytophthora ramorum as the cause of extensive mortality of Quercus spp. and Lithocarpus densiflorus in California. Plant Disease, 86, 205–214.Robin, C., Desprez-Loustau, M. L., Capron, G., & Delatour, C. (1998). First record of Phytophthora cinnamomi on cork and holm oaks in France and evidence of pathogenicity. Annales Des Sciences Forestieres, 55, 869–883.Robin, C., Capron, G., & Desprez-Loustau, M. L. (2001). Root infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi in seedlings of three oak species. Plant Pathology, 50, 708–716.Rodríguez-Molina, M. C., Torres-Vila, L. M., Blanco-Santos, A., Núñez, E. J. P., & Torres-Álvarez, E. (2002). Viability of holm and cork oak seedlings from acorns sown in soils naturally infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi. Forest Pathology, 32, 365–372.Romero, M. A., Sánchez, J. E., Jiménez, J. J., Belbahri, L., Trapero, A., Lefort, F., & Sánchez, M. E. (2007). New Pythium taxa causing root rot in Mediterranean Quercus species in southwest Spain and Portugal. Journal of Phytopathology, 115, 289–295.Sánchez de Lorenzo-Cáceres J. M. (2001). Guía de las plantas ornamentales. S.A. Mundi-Prensa Libros. ISBN 9788471149374. 688 pp.Sánchez, M. E., Caetano, P., Ferraz, J., & Trapero, A. (2002). Phytophtora disease of Quercus ilex in south-western Spain. Forest Pathology, 32, 5–18.Sánchez, M. E., Sánchez, J. E., Navarro, R. M., Fernández, P., & Trapero, A. (2003). Incidencia de la podredumbre radical causada por Phytophthora cinnamomi en masas de Quercus en Andalucía. Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal-Plagas, 29, 87–108.Sánchez, M. E., Andicoberry, S., & Trapero, A. (2005). Pathogenicity of three Phytophthora spp. causing late seedling rot of Quercus ilex ssp. ballota. Forest Pathology, 35, 115–125.Sánchez, M. E., Caetano, P., Romero, M. A., Navarro, R. M., & Trapero, A. (2006). Phytophthora root rot as the main factor of oak decline in southern Spain. In: Progress in Research on Phytophthora Diseases of Forest Trees. Proceedings of the Third International IUFRO Working Party S07.02.09. Meeting at Freising. Germany 11-18 September 2004. Brasier C. M., Jung T., Oßwald W. (Eds). Forest Research. Farnham, UK. pp. 149-154.Scanu, B., Linaldeddu, B. T., Deidda, A., & Jung, T. (2015). Diversity of Phytophthora species from declining Mediterranean maquis vegetation, including two new species, Phytophthora crassamura and P. ornamentata sp. nov. PLoS ONE, 10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143234 .Schmitthenner, A. F., & Canaday, C. H. (1983). Role of chemical factors in the development of Phytophthora diseases. In: Phytophthora. Its biology, taxonomy, ecology, and pathology (pp.189-196). Ed. by Erwin D. C., Bartnicki-Garcia S., Tsao P. H. St. Paul, : The American Phytopathological Society.Scibetta, S., Schena, L., Chimento, A., Cacciola, S. A., & Cooke, D. E. L. (2012). A molecular method to assess Phytophthora diversity in environmental samples. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 88, 356–368.Sena, K., Crocker, E., Vincelli, P., & Barton, C. (2018). Phytophthora cinnamomi as a driver of forest change: Implications for conservation and management. Forest Ecology and Management, 409, 799–807.Thines, M. (2013). Taxonomy and phylogeny of Phytophthora and related oomycetes In: Phytophthora: A global perspective (pp. 11-18). Ed. by Lamour, K. Wallingford: CABI.Tsao, P. H. (1990). Why many Phytophthora root rots and crown rots of tree and horticultural crops remain undetected. EPPO Bulletin, 20, 11–17.Tuset, J. J., Hinarejos, C., Mira, J. L., & Cobos, M. (1996). Implicación de Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands en la enfermedad de la seca de encinas y alcornoques. Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal-Plagas, 22, 491–499.Vettraino, A. M., Barzanti, G. P., Bianco, M. C., Ragazzi, A., Capretti, P., Paoletti, E., & Vannini, A. (2002). Occurrence of Phytophthora species in oak stands in Italy and their association with declining oak trees. Forest Pathology, 32, 19–28.Xia, K., Hill, L. M., Li, D. Z., & Walters, C. (2014). Factors affecting stress tolerance in recalcitrant embryonic axes from seeds of four Quercus (Fagaceae) species native to the USA or China. Annals of Botany, 114, 1747–1759