122 research outputs found

    Benzodiazépines et risque de démence chez les personnes ùgées

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    This work deals with the risk of dementia in elderly individuals who have used benzodiazepines. These drugs deserve particular attention because (i) their use appears to be too systematic and most often chronic despite good practice guidelines recommending short durations of use (ii) their deleterious effects on cognition remain underevaluated for the long-­‐term. Most of the studies conducted concluded that there was an increased risk of dementia among benzodiazepine users. In fact, a protopathic bias could, at least in part, have explained these results. Indeed, the prescription of benzodiazepines could have been motivated by the prodromes often observed several years before the clinical diagnosis of a dementia. With the aim of better controlling for this bias, the BENZODEM project used the resources of the PAQUID cohort (3777 subjects ≄65 years randomly sampled from electoral lists in South-­‐West France, with a 20-­‐ year follow-­‐up). This project combined two cohort studies and one case-­‐control. These studies concluded in a risk of dementia increased by 46 to 62% in benzodiazepine users and delayed by 5 to 15 years after treatment initiation. The second part of the programme (BENZODEM2) consisted of a case-­‐control study conducted in a large sample of subjects >65 years registered in the Quebec Health care database (RĂ©gie de l’Assurance Maladie du QuĂ©bec, RAMQ). It was thus possible(1)to validate the previous results by using a different population (the risk was found to be increased by 30 to 80% depending on the patterns of use regarding dose, duration and type of molecule), (2) to identify the patterns of use which appeared to be at risk; excess risk was only apparent for uses of more than three months with a marked dose-­‐effect relationship, and was higher for molecules with a long elimination half-­‐life. Complementary explorations using the PAQUID cohort indicated that the excess risk in exposed was not explained by a differential mortality rate between the groups compared. Other studies suggested that the link found remained independently of the prescription of other psychotropics. Another analysis in the PAQUID cohort showed that, in the absence of dementia, no difference was observed between benzodiazepine users and non-­‐users with regards to the evolution of scores evaluating cognitive functions. These results led to several assumptions about the putative mechanism explaining the relationship found between benzodiazepine use and dementia: (1) benzodiazepines could be early markers of symptoms such as anxiety, depression or insomnia, which are potential prodromes or risk factors for this disease, (2) these drugs could also reduce the ability to use cognitive reserve in order to cope with early lesions of the disease during the preclinical stage, (3) the association found could also result from these two mechanisms.Ce travail porte sur l’étude du risque de dĂ©mence chez les personnes ĂągĂ©es ayant consommĂ© des benzodiazĂ©pines. Ces mĂ©dicaments mĂ©ritent une attention particuliĂšre du fait de (i) leur utilisation trop systĂ©matique et le plus souvent chronique contrairement aux recommandations prĂ©conisant des durĂ©es d’utilisation courtes (ii) leurs effets dĂ©lĂ©tĂšres sur la cognition demeurant mal Ă©valuĂ©s Ă  long terme. La plupart des Ă©tudes conduites sur ce sujet ont conclu Ă  une augmentation du risque de dĂ©mence chez les sujets ayant utilisĂ© des benzodiazĂ©pines. Un biais protopathique pouvait cependant, en partie du moins, avoir expliquĂ© ces rĂ©sultats : la prescription de benzodiazĂ©pines pouvait avoir Ă©tĂ© motivĂ©e par des prodromes souvent observĂ©s au cours des annĂ©es prĂ©cĂ©dant le diagnostic de la maladie. Afin de mieux prendre en considĂ©ration ce biais, le projet BENZODEM a utilisĂ© les ressources de la cohorte PAQUID (3777 sujets ≄ 65 ans tirĂ©s au sort sur les listes Ă©lectorales de Dordogne et Gironde bĂ©nĂ©ficiant d’un suivi de plus de 20 ans). Ce projet, combinant deux Ă©tudes de cohorte et une Ă©tude cas-­‐tĂ©moins, a conclu Ă  un risque de dĂ©mence augmentĂ© de 46 Ă  62% chez les utilisateurs de benzodiazĂ©pines et retardĂ© de 5 Ă  15 ans par rapport Ă  l’initiation du traitement. La seconde partie du programme (BENZODEM2) a consistĂ© en une Ă©tude cas-­‐tĂ©moins conduite sur un large Ă©chantillon de sujets de plus de 65 ans enregistrĂ©s sur la base de donnĂ©es de la RĂ©gie de l’Assurance Maladie du QuĂ©bec (RAMQ). Ce programme a permis (1) de valider les prĂ©cĂ©dents rĂ©sultats (risque augmentĂ© de 30 Ă  80% en fonction de la dose, la durĂ©e du traitement et la nature des molĂ©cules) (2) d’identifier les profils de consommation associĂ©s Ă  un excĂšs de risque : consommateurs de plus de 3 mois avec une relation dose-­‐effet marquĂ©e et molĂ©cules Ă  longue demi-­‐ vie d’élimination. Des explorations complĂ©mentaires ont permis de conclure que cet excĂšs de risque n’était pas expliquĂ© par une mortalitĂ© diffĂ©rentielle entre groupes comparĂ©s ni par la prescription d’autres mĂ©dicaments psychotropes. Une autre Ă©tude menĂ©e sur PAQUID montrait une absence de diffĂ©rence entre consommateurs et non consommateurs de benzodiazĂ©pines vis-­‐à-­‐vis de l’évolution des scores mesurant les fonctions cognitives. Ces rĂ©sultats ont permis d’émettre des hypothĂšses concernant le mĂ©canisme de l’association entre utilisation de benzodiazĂ©pines et dĂ©mence: (1) les benzodiazĂ©pines pourraient constituer des marqueurs prĂ©coces de la maladie ; (2) les benzodiazĂ©pines pourraient aussi diminuer les capacitĂ©s de recours Ă  la rĂ©serve cognitive en rĂ©ponses aux lĂ©sions prĂ©coces de la maladie au stade prĂ©clinique ; (3) il est aussi possible que ces deux explications soient combinĂ©es

    CNS Drugs

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    BACKGROUND: Hepatotoxicity may be a concern when prescribing antidepressants. Nevertheless, this risk remains poorly understood for serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs: venlafaxine, milnacipran, duloxetine) and 'other antidepressants' (mianserin, mirtazapine, tianeptine and agomelatine), particularly in comparison with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs: fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, escitalopram), which are by far the most commonly prescribed antidepressants. OBJECTIVE: We quantified the risk of serious liver injury associated with new use of SNRIs and 'other antidepressants' compared with SSRIs in real-life practice. METHODS: Based on the French national health insurance database, this cohort study included 4,966,825 individuals aged 25 years and older with a first reimbursement of SSRIs, SNRIs or 'other antidepressants' between January 2010 and June 2015. We compared the risk of serious liver injury within the 6 months following antidepressant initiation according to antidepressant class, with SSRIs as the reference, using an inverse probability-of-treatment-weighted Cox proportional hazard model adjusted for demographic characteristics and risk factors of liver injury. RESULTS: We identified 382 serious liver injuries overall (none for milnacipran initiators). Age and gender standardized incidence rates per 100,000 person-years were 19.2 for SSRIs, 22.2 for venlafaxine, 12.6 for duloxetine, 21.5 for mianserin, 32.8 for mirtazapine, 31.6 for tianeptine and 24.6 for agomelatine initiators. Initiation of antidepressants of interest versus SSRIs was not associated with an increased risk of serious liver injury [adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence interval): venlafaxine 1.17 (0.83-1.64), duloxetine 0.54 (0.28-1.02), mianserin 0.90 (0.58-1.41), mirtazapine 1.17 (0.67-2.02), tianeptine 1.35 (0.82-2.23) and agomelatine 1.07 (0.51-2.23)]. This finding was confirmed by the results of an additional study using a case-time-control design. CONCLUSION: These results do not provide evidence of an increased risk of serious liver injury following initiation of SNRIs or 'other antidepressants' compared with SSRIs in real-life practice. This could reflect an inherent lack of difference in risk between the drug classes, or the fact that individuals with higher susceptibility to drug-induced liver injury are not prescribed drugs considered to be more hepatotoxic

    Mani e manipolazioni nella grammatica e i sistemi concettuali della lingua Inglese

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    Cette Ă©tude porte sur l’inscription physique et symbolique des mains dans le systĂšme grammatical et conceptuel de l’anglais. Une attention particuliĂšre a Ă©tĂ© portĂ©e au rĂŽle des mains dans les conceptualisations mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de notions plus ou moins abstraites. De façon plus gĂ©nĂ©rale se pose la question du rĂŽle des mains (physique et symbolique) dans l’organisation interne de la langue et l’expression de la pensĂ©e. Pour rĂ©pondre Ă  cette question, une Ă©tude quantitative du corpus Ă©crit British National Corpus (BNC) a Ă©tĂ© faite, dans lequel des morphĂšmes polysĂ©miques Ă©voquant les parties et mouvements du corps ont Ă©tĂ© classĂ©s, en confrontant leurs utilisations littĂ©rales, mĂ©tonymiques et mĂ©taphoriques.Notre recherche a permis d’explorer l’hypothĂšse d’un “corps symbolique de la cognition” (Lapaire 2008) opĂ©rant sur des matiĂšres et des espaces abstraits, avec des mains imaginaires. Elle a aussi permis d’explorer la maniĂšre dont la conceptualisation mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de ces morphĂšmes “fonctionne”, en “dĂ©composant” le sens conceptuel de ces derniers. Les effets grammaticaux qu’entrainent une telle utilisation conceptuelle ont Ă©galement Ă©tĂ© analysĂ©s. La grammaticalisation (Traugott 2000) permet de montrer comment les parties du corps et leurs activitĂ©s prototypiques sont intĂ©grĂ©es aux systĂšmes grammaticaux. Ces derniers ne sont pas autonomes, la grammaire inscrivant dans ces formes l’expĂ©rience physico-culturelle de l’environnement.This study treats the presence of physical and symbolical hands in the grammar and the conceptual structures of English. The role of the hands in the metonymical and metaphorical conceptualization of more or less abstract notions will be highlighted. More generally, this raises the question as to what the role of the hands (physical and symbolical) is in the structures of the English language and in thought. To answer this question, a quantitative study of mostly the written British National Corpus (BNC), has been made, in which polysemous terms relating to body parts and body part movements, have been searched and classified according to their literal, metonymic, and metaphorical uses. This research study will allow for the exploration of the hypothesis of the Idealized Body of Cognition (Lapaire 2008), which works on abstract materials and spaces with imaginary hands. It will also allow for an exploration of the way conceptualization of the body works by “decomposing” its meaning. The consequences such conceptualized uses of the body may have in grammar will also be explored. Grammaticalization (Traugott 2000) will show how body parts and their prototypical activities may be integrated in grammatical systems. This latter are not autonomous, inscribing in their forms the physico-cultural experience of the environment.Questo studio tratta della presenza della mani, fisiche e/o simboliche, nella grammatica e nelle strutture concettuali della lingua Inglese, in particolare, saranno evidenziate le loro concettualizzazioni metonimiche e metaforiche, piĂč o meno astratte. In generale, si tratta di analizzare il ruolo delle mani (fisiche e simboliche) nelle strutture della lingua Inglese e nel pensiero. A tal fine, lo studio si Ăš basato su una ricerca quantitativa della British National Corpus (BNC) che ha classificato i termini polisemici riguardanti parti del corpo ed i relativi movimenti, a secondo del loro uso letterale, metonimico o metaforico. Questo studio si pone come obiettivo quello di esplorare l’ipotesi di un corpo simbolico della cognizione (Idealized Body of Cognition, Lapaire 2008) che agisce su materiali e spazi astratti con “mani immaginarie”. Non solo, ma anche di esplorare la maniera, in cui la concettualizzazione del corpo “funziona”, “scomponendo” questo senso concettuale, fino ad indagare sulle conseguenze che tali usi concettuali del corpo hanno nella grammatica. La grammaticalizzazione (Traugott 2000) mostrerĂ  come parti del corpo e le loro prototipiche attivitĂ  possono essere integrati nei sistemi grammaticali, quest’ultimi non sono autonomi e inscrivono nelle loro forme l’esperienza fisico-culturale dell’ambiente

    Mani e manipolazioni nella grammatica e i sistemi concettuali della lingua Inglese

    No full text
    This study treats the presence of physical and symbolical hands in the grammar and the conceptual structures of English. The role of the hands in the metonymical and metaphorical conceptualization of more or less abstract notions will be highlighted. More generally, this raises the question as to what the role of the hands (physical and symbolical) is in the structures of the English language and in thought. To answer this question, a quantitative study of mostly the written British National Corpus (BNC), has been made, in which polysemous terms relating to body parts and body part movements, have been searched and classified according to their literal, metonymic, and metaphorical uses. This research study will allow for the exploration of the hypothesis of the Idealized Body of Cognition (Lapaire 2008), which works on abstract materials and spaces with imaginary hands. It will also allow for an exploration of the way conceptualization of the body works by “decomposing” its meaning. The consequences such conceptualized uses of the body may have in grammar will also be explored. Grammaticalization (Traugott 2000) will show how body parts and their prototypical activities may be integrated in grammatical systems. This latter are not autonomous, inscribing in their forms the physico-cultural experience of the environment.Cette Ă©tude porte sur l’inscription physique et symbolique des mains dans le systĂšme grammatical et conceptuel de l’anglais. Une attention particuliĂšre a Ă©tĂ© portĂ©e au rĂŽle des mains dans les conceptualisations mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de notions plus ou moins abstraites. De façon plus gĂ©nĂ©rale se pose la question du rĂŽle des mains (physique et symbolique) dans l’organisation interne de la langue et l’expression de la pensĂ©e. Pour rĂ©pondre Ă  cette question, une Ă©tude quantitative du corpus Ă©crit British National Corpus (BNC) a Ă©tĂ© faite, dans lequel des morphĂšmes polysĂ©miques Ă©voquant les parties et mouvements du corps ont Ă©tĂ© classĂ©s, en confrontant leurs utilisations littĂ©rales, mĂ©tonymiques et mĂ©taphoriques.Notre recherche a permis d’explorer l’hypothĂšse d’un “corps symbolique de la cognition” (Lapaire 2008) opĂ©rant sur des matiĂšres et des espaces abstraits, avec des mains imaginaires. Elle a aussi permis d’explorer la maniĂšre dont la conceptualisation mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de ces morphĂšmes “fonctionne”, en “dĂ©composant” le sens conceptuel de ces derniers. Les effets grammaticaux qu’entrainent une telle utilisation conceptuelle ont Ă©galement Ă©tĂ© analysĂ©s. La grammaticalisation (Traugott 2000) permet de montrer comment les parties du corps et leurs activitĂ©s prototypiques sont intĂ©grĂ©es aux systĂšmes grammaticaux. Ces derniers ne sont pas autonomes, la grammaire inscrivant dans ces formes l’expĂ©rience physico-culturelle de l’environnement.Questo studio tratta della presenza della mani, fisiche e/o simboliche, nella grammatica e nelle strutture concettuali della lingua Inglese, in particolare, saranno evidenziate le loro concettualizzazioni metonimiche e metaforiche, piĂč o meno astratte. In generale, si tratta di analizzare il ruolo delle mani (fisiche e simboliche) nelle strutture della lingua Inglese e nel pensiero. A tal fine, lo studio si Ăš basato su una ricerca quantitativa della British National Corpus (BNC) che ha classificato i termini polisemici riguardanti parti del corpo ed i relativi movimenti, a secondo del loro uso letterale, metonimico o metaforico. Questo studio si pone come obiettivo quello di esplorare l’ipotesi di un corpo simbolico della cognizione (Idealized Body of Cognition, Lapaire 2008) che agisce su materiali e spazi astratti con “mani immaginarie”. Non solo, ma anche di esplorare la maniera, in cui la concettualizzazione del corpo “funziona”, “scomponendo” questo senso concettuale, fino ad indagare sulle conseguenze che tali usi concettuali del corpo hanno nella grammatica. La grammaticalizzazione (Traugott 2000) mostrerĂ  come parti del corpo e le loro prototipiche attivitĂ  possono essere integrati nei sistemi grammaticali, quest’ultimi non sono autonomi e inscrivono nelle loro forme l’esperienza fisico-culturale dell’ambiente

    Hands and manipulations in the grammar and cognitive systems of English

    No full text
    Cette Ă©tude porte sur l’inscription physique et symbolique des mains dans le systĂšme grammatical et conceptuel de l’anglais. Une attention particuliĂšre a Ă©tĂ© portĂ©e au rĂŽle des mains dans les conceptualisations mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de notions plus ou moins abstraites. De façon plus gĂ©nĂ©rale se pose la question du rĂŽle des mains (physique et symbolique) dans l’organisation interne de la langue et l’expression de la pensĂ©e. Pour rĂ©pondre Ă  cette question, une Ă©tude quantitative du corpus Ă©crit British National Corpus (BNC) a Ă©tĂ© faite, dans lequel des morphĂšmes polysĂ©miques Ă©voquant les parties et mouvements du corps ont Ă©tĂ© classĂ©s, en confrontant leurs utilisations littĂ©rales, mĂ©tonymiques et mĂ©taphoriques. Notre recherche a permis d’explorer l’hypothĂšse d’un “corps symbolique de la cognition” (Lapaire 2008) opĂ©rant sur des matiĂšres et des espaces abstraits, avec des mains imaginaires. Elle a aussi permis d’explorer la maniĂšre dont la conceptualisation mĂ©tonymique et mĂ©taphorique de ces morphĂšmes “fonctionne”, en “dĂ©composant” le sens conceptuel de ces derniers. Les effets grammaticaux qu’entrainent une telle utilisation conceptuelle ont Ă©galement Ă©tĂ© analysĂ©s. La grammaticalisation (Traugott 2000) permet de montrer comment les parties du corps et leurs activitĂ©s prototypiques sont intĂ©grĂ©es aux systĂšmes grammaticaux. Ces derniers ne sont pas autonomes, la grammaire inscrivant dans ces formes l’expĂ©rience physico-culturelle de l’environnement.This study treats the presence of physical and symbolical hands in the grammar and the conceptual structures of English. The role of the hands in the metonymical and metaphorical conceptualization of more or less abstract notions will be highlighted. More generally, this raises the question as to what the role of the hands (physical and symbolical) is in the structures of the English language and in thought. To answer this question, a quantitative study of mostly the written British National Corpus (BNC), has been made, in which polysemous terms relating to body parts and body part movements, have been searched and classified according to their literal, metonymic, and metaphorical uses. This research study will allow for the exploration of the hypothesis of the Idealized Body of Cognition (Lapaire 2008), which works on abstract materials and spaces with imaginary hands. It will also allow for an exploration of the way conceptualization of the body works by “decomposing” its meaning. The consequences such conceptualized uses of the body may have in grammar will also be explored. Grammaticalization (Traugott 2000) will show how body parts and their prototypical activities may be integrated in grammatical systems. This latter are not autonomous, inscribing in their forms the physico-cultural experience of the environment

    Benzodiazepines and risk of dementia in the elderly

    No full text
    Ce travail porte sur l’étude du risque de dĂ©mence chez les personnes ĂągĂ©es ayant consommĂ© des benzodiazĂ©pines. Ces mĂ©dicaments mĂ©ritent une attention particuliĂšre du fait de (i) leur utilisation trop systĂ©matique et le plus souvent chronique contrairement aux recommandations prĂ©conisant des durĂ©es d’utilisation courtes (ii) leurs effets dĂ©lĂ©tĂšres sur la cognition demeurant mal Ă©valuĂ©s Ă  long terme. La plupart des Ă©tudes conduites sur ce sujet ont conclu Ă  une augmentation du risque de dĂ©mence chez les sujets ayant utilisĂ© des benzodiazĂ©pines. Un biais protopathique pouvait cependant, en partie du moins, avoir expliquĂ© ces rĂ©sultats : la prescription de benzodiazĂ©pines pouvait avoir Ă©tĂ© motivĂ©e par des prodromes souvent observĂ©s au cours des annĂ©es prĂ©cĂ©dant le diagnostic de la maladie. Afin de mieux prendre en considĂ©ration ce biais, le projet BENZODEM a utilisĂ© les ressources de la cohorte PAQUID (3777 sujets ≄ 65 ans tirĂ©s au sort sur les listes Ă©lectorales de Dordogne et Gironde bĂ©nĂ©ficiant d’un suivi de plus de 20 ans). Ce projet, combinant deux Ă©tudes de cohorte et une Ă©tude cas-­‐tĂ©moins, a conclu Ă  un risque de dĂ©mence augmentĂ© de 46 Ă  62% chez les utilisateurs de benzodiazĂ©pines et retardĂ© de 5 Ă  15 ans par rapport Ă  l’initiation du traitement. La seconde partie du programme (BENZODEM2) a consistĂ© en une Ă©tude cas-­‐tĂ©moins conduite sur un large Ă©chantillon de sujets de plus de 65 ans enregistrĂ©s sur la base de donnĂ©es de la RĂ©gie de l’Assurance Maladie du QuĂ©bec (RAMQ). Ce programme a permis (1) de valider les prĂ©cĂ©dents rĂ©sultats (risque augmentĂ© de 30 Ă  80% en fonction de la dose, la durĂ©e du traitement et la nature des molĂ©cules) (2) d’identifier les profils de consommation associĂ©s Ă  un excĂšs de risque : consommateurs de plus de 3 mois avec une relation dose-­‐effet marquĂ©e et molĂ©cules Ă  longue demi-­‐ vie d’élimination. Des explorations complĂ©mentaires ont permis de conclure que cet excĂšs de risque n’était pas expliquĂ© par une mortalitĂ© diffĂ©rentielle entre groupes comparĂ©s ni par la prescription d’autres mĂ©dicaments psychotropes. Une autre Ă©tude menĂ©e sur PAQUID montrait une absence de diffĂ©rence entre consommateurs et non consommateurs de benzodiazĂ©pines vis-­‐à-­‐vis de l’évolution des scores mesurant les fonctions cognitives. Ces rĂ©sultats ont permis d’émettre des hypothĂšses concernant le mĂ©canisme de l’association entre utilisation de benzodiazĂ©pines et dĂ©mence: (1) les benzodiazĂ©pines pourraient constituer des marqueurs prĂ©coces de la maladie ; (2) les benzodiazĂ©pines pourraient aussi diminuer les capacitĂ©s de recours Ă  la rĂ©serve cognitive en rĂ©ponses aux lĂ©sions prĂ©coces de la maladie au stade prĂ©clinique ; (3) il est aussi possible que ces deux explications soient combinĂ©es.This work deals with the risk of dementia in elderly individuals who have used benzodiazepines. These drugs deserve particular attention because (i) their use appears to be too systematic and most often chronic despite good practice guidelines recommending short durations of use (ii) their deleterious effects on cognition remain underevaluated for the long-­‐term. Most of the studies conducted concluded that there was an increased risk of dementia among benzodiazepine users. In fact, a protopathic bias could, at least in part, have explained these results. Indeed, the prescription of benzodiazepines could have been motivated by the prodromes often observed several years before the clinical diagnosis of a dementia. With the aim of better controlling for this bias, the BENZODEM project used the resources of the PAQUID cohort (3777 subjects ≄65 years randomly sampled from electoral lists in South-­‐West France, with a 20-­‐ year follow-­‐up). This project combined two cohort studies and one case-­‐control. These studies concluded in a risk of dementia increased by 46 to 62% in benzodiazepine users and delayed by 5 to 15 years after treatment initiation. The second part of the programme (BENZODEM2) consisted of a case-­‐control study conducted in a large sample of subjects >65 years registered in the Quebec Health care database (RĂ©gie de l’Assurance Maladie du QuĂ©bec, RAMQ). It was thus possible(1) to validate the previous results by using a different population (the risk was found to be increased by 30 to 80% depending on the patterns of use regarding dose, duration and type of molecule), (2) to identify the patterns of use which appeared to be at risk; excess risk was only apparent for uses of more than three months with a marked dose-­‐effect relationship, and was higher for molecules with a long elimination half-­‐life. Complementary explorations using the PAQUID cohort indicated that the excess risk in exposed was not explained by a differential mortality rate between the groups compared. Other studies suggested that the link found remained independently of the prescription of other psychotropics. Another analysis in the PAQUID cohort showed that, in the absence of dementia, no difference was observed between benzodiazepine users and non-­‐users with regards to the evolution of scores evaluating cognitive functions. These results led to several assumptions about the putative mechanism explaining the relationship found between benzodiazepine use and dementia: (1) benzodiazepines could be early markers of symptoms such as anxiety, depression or insomnia, which are potential prodromes or risk factors for this disease, (2) these drugs could also reduce the ability to use cognitive reserve in order to cope with early lesions of the disease during the preclinical stage, (3) the association found could also result from these two mechanisms
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