Do we need a zero pure time preference or the risk of climate catastrophes to justify a 2C global warming target ?

This paper confronts the wide political support for the 2C objective of global increase in temperature, reaffirmed in Copenhagen, with the consistent set of hypotheses on which it relies. It explains why neither an almost zero pure time preference nor concerns about catastrophic damages in case of uncontrolled global warming are prerequisites for policy decisions preserving the possibility of meeting a 2C target. It rests on an optimal stochastic control model balancing the costs and benefits of climate policies resolved sequentially in order to account for the arrival of new information (the RESPONSE model). This model describes the optimal abatement pathways for 2,304 worldviews, combining hypotheses about growth rates, baseline emissions, abatement costs, pure time preference, damages, and climate sensitivity. It shows that 26 percent of the worldviews selecting the 2C target are not characterized by one of the extreme assumptions about pure time preference or climate change damages.Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases,Climate Change Economics,Science of Climate Change,Global Environment Facility,Environment and Energy Efficiency

Global characterization and target identification of piRNAs and endo-siRNAs in mouse gametes and zygotes

44 p.-1 tab.-10 fig.A set of small RNAs known as rasRNAs (repeat-associated small RNAs) have been related to the down-regulation of Transposable Elements (TEs) to safeguard genome integrity. Two key members of the rasRNAs group are piRNAs and endo-siRNAs. We have performed a comparative analysis of piRNAs and endo-siRNAs present in mouse oocytes, spermatozoa and zygotes, identified by deep sequencing and bioinformatic analysis. The detection of piRNAs and endo-siRNAs in the spermatozoa and revealed also in zygotes, hints to their potential delivery to oocytes during fertilization. However, a comparative assessment of the three cell types indicates that both piRNAs and endo-siRNAs are mainly maternally inherited. Finally, we have assessed the role of the different rasRNA molecules in connection with amplification processes by way of the "ping-pong cycle". Our results suggest that the ping-pong cycle can act on other rasRNAs, such as tRNA- and rRNA-derived fragments, thus not only being restricted to TEs during gametogenesis. © 2014 Elsevier B.V.This work was funded by grants from The European Chemical Industry Council Long-range Research Initiative (CEFIC-LRi), from the MEDDTL (11-MRESPNRPE-9-CVS-072), France, from the CSIC (PIE 201020E016), Spain.Peer reviewe

Assistive Technology User Groups and Early Childhood Educators

This article explores the potential of User Groups as a professional development venue for early childhood educators in developing operational and functional competence in using hardware and software components of an Assistive Technology (AT) Toolkit. User Groups are composed of varying numbers of participants having an interest in technology, and are led by one or more skilled facilitators who meet with participants across time to help them acquire and demonstrate new technology skill sets. A series of these groups were conducted with seven early education professionals serving young preschool children who were at risk or who had disabilities. The impact of these User Groups was examined using self-reports subsequent to User Group participation. Specific data were collected regarding the types of technologies that had been used, and the types of classroom instructional products that had been created and implemented in classrooms using the technologies. A discussion of the value of User Groups is presented

The effect of four commercially available steel decontamination processes on the performance of external coatings

External coatings used for corrosion protection often have to perform under severely corrosive environments. One major concern regarding coating performance is the negative effect of soluble salts on the steel substrate at the time of coating application, particularly for marine maintenance coating applications. These salts impact the ability of the applied coating systems to protect the steel in several ways including osmotic coating blistering, promotion of under-film metallic corrosion and coating disbondment. This paper focuses on removal of soluble salts contamination by commercially available decontamination processes in relation to external coating systems. We directly compare the effectiveness of four cleaning methods with the performance of ten coating systems. The methodology of surface contamination and preparation of test panels is discussed. After cleaning, sample evaluation for chloride ion contamination levels was carried out using Field method (commercial chloride ion test kit for surfaces) and Ion Chromatography method. Additionally, Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) and elemental surface mapping analysis were carried out. Laboratory testing of coating systems included Adhesion, Porosity, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analysis and cyclic UV/Salt Fog exposure. The performance of the ten coatings on all the substrates was good, but there were differences in gloss retention and on the degree of checking of the different coatings. The only significant difference in performance of the coatings compared to the method used for cleaning the substrate was higher undercreep observed for most of the coatings applied to the ultra-high pressure water jetted system. This shows the importance of substrate preparation due to the sensitivity of the coatings to even low levels of salt. Two coatings did not show increased undercreep and these may be more applicable for offshore maintenance applications where dry abrasive blasting is sometimes not used. The chemical treatment cleaning method used prior to coating application did not show any significant positive or negative effect on the performance of the applied coatings. The fact that the only differences in performance for the coatings applied to the differently prepared substrates was seen for undercreep suggests that the difference may be exacerbated for immersion situations. A follow up study to this one will examine the performance of internal coatings using immersion tests, and it will be interesting to see if these show increased effect on coating performance

Chapter 6 - Assessing transformation pathways

Stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations at any level will require deep reductions in GHG emissions. Net global CO2 emissions, in particular, must eventually be brought to or below zero. Emissions reductions of this magnitude will require large-scale transformations in human societies, from the way that we produce and consume energy to how we use the land surface. The more ambitious the stabilization goal, the more rapid this transformation must occur. A natural question in this context is what will be the transformation pathway toward stabilization; that is, how do we get from here to there? The topic of this chapter is transformation pathways. The chapter is motivated primarily by three questions. First, what are the near-term and future choices that define transformation pathways including, for example, the goal itself, the emissions pathway to the goal, the technologies used for and sectors contributing to mitigation, the nature of international coordination, and mitigation policies? Second, what are the key decision making outcomes of different transformation pathways, including the magnitude and international distribution of economic costs and the implications for other policy objectives such as those associated with sustainable development? Third, how will actions taken today influence the options that might be available in the future? Two concepts are particularly important for framing any answers to these questions. The first is that there is no single pathway to stabilization of GHG concentrations at any level. Instead, the literature elucidates a wide range of transformation pathways. Choices will govern which pathway is followed. These choices include, among other things, the long-term stabilization goal, the emissions pathway to meet that goal, the degree to which concentrations might temporarily overshoot the goal, the technologies that will be deployed to reduce emissions, the degree to which mitigation is coordinated across countries, the policy approaches used to achieve these goals within and across countries, the treatment of land use, and the manner in which mitigation is meshed with other policy objectives such as sustainable development. The second concept is that transformation pathways can be distinguished from one another in important ways. Weighing the characteristics of different pathways is the way in which deliberative decisions about transformation pathways would be made. Although measures of aggregate economic implications have often been put forward as key deliberative decision making factors, these are far from the only characteristics that matter for making good decisions. Transformation pathways inherently involve a range of tradeoffs that link to other national and policy objectives such as energy and food security, the distribution of economic costs, local air pollution, other environmental factors associated with different technology solutions (e.g., nuclear power, coal-fired carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)), and economic competitiveness. Many of these fall under the umbrella of sustainable development. A question that is often raised about particular stabilization goals and transformation pathways to those goals is whether the goals or pathways are "feasible". In many circumstances, there are clear physical constraints that can render particular long-term goals physically impossible. For example, if additinional mitigation beyond that of today is delayed to a large enough degree and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) options are not available (see Section 6.9), a goal of reaching 450 ppm CO2eq by the end of the 21st century can be physically impossible. However, in many cases, statements about feasibility are bound up in subjective assessments of the degree to which other characteristics of particular transformation pathways might influence the ability or desire of human societies to follow them. Important characteristics include economic implications, social acceptance of new technologies that underpin particular transformation pathways, the rapidity at which social and technological systems would need to change to follow particular pathways, political feasibility, and linkages to other national objectives. A primary goal of this chapter is to illuminate these characteristics of transformation pathways

Hepatitis C virus infection upregulates CD55 expression on the hepatocyte surface and promotes association with virus particles

CD55 limits excessive complement activation on the host cell surface by accelerating the decay of C3 convertases. In this study, we observed that hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection of hepatocytes or HCV core protein expression in transfected hepatocytes upregulated CD55 expression at the mRNA and protein levels. Further analysis suggested that the HCV core protein or full-length (FL) genome enhanced CD55 promoter activity in a luciferase-based assay, which was further augmented in the presence of interleukin-6. Mutation of the CREB or SP-1 binding site on the CD55 promoter impaired HCV core protein-mediated upregulation of CD55. HCV-infected or core protein-transfected Huh7.5 cells displayed greater viability in the presence of CD81 and CD55 antibodies and complement. Biochemical analysis revealed that CD55 was associated with cell culture-grown HCV after purification by sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation. Consistent with this, a polyclonal antibody to CD55 captured cell culture-grown HCV. Blocking antibodies against CD55 or virus envelope glycoproteins in the presence of normal human serum as a source of complement inhibited HCV infection. The inhibition was enhanced in the presence of both the antibodies and serum complement. Collectively, these results suggest that HCV induces and associates with a negative regulator of the complement pathway, a likely mechanism for immune evasion

Estimation of interdomain flexibility of N-terminus of factor H using residual dipolar couplings

Characterization of segmental flexibility is needed to understand the biological mechanisms of the very large category of functionally diverse proteins, exemplified by the regulators of complement activation, that consist of numerous compact modules or domains linked by short, potentially flexible, sequences of amino acid residues. The use of NMR-derived residual dipolar couplings (RDCs), in magnetically aligned media, to evaluate interdomain motion is established but only for two-domain proteins. We focused on the three N-terminal domains (called CCPs or SCRs) of the important complement regulator, human factor H (i.e. FH1-3). These domains cooperate to facilitate cleavage of the key complement activation-specific protein fragment, C3b, forming iC3b that no longer participates in the complement cascade. We refined a three-dimensional solution structure of recombinant FH1-3 based on nuclear Overhauser effects and RDCs. We then employed a rudimentary series of RDC datasets, collected in media containing magnetically aligned bicelles (disk-like particles formed from phospholipids) under three different conditions, to estimate interdomain motions. This circumvents a requirement of previous approaches for technically difficult collection of five independent RDC datasets. More than 80% of conformers of this predominantly extended three-domain molecule exhibit flexions of < 40 °. Such segmental flexibility (together with the local dynamics of the hypervariable loop within domain 3), could facilitate recognition of C3b via initial anchoring and eventual reorganization of modules to the conformation captured in the previously solved crystal structure of a C3b:FH1-4 complex

Technological Change in Economic Models of Environmental Policy: A Survey

This paper provides an overview of the treatment of technological change in economic models of environmental policy. Numerous economic modeling studies have confirmed the sensitivity of mid- and long-run climate change mitigation cost and benefit projections to assumptions about technology costs. In general, technical progress is considered to be a noneconomic, exogenous variable in global climate change modeling. However, there is overwhelming evidence that technological change is not an exogenous variable but to an important degree endogenous, induced by needs and pressures. Hence, some environmenteconomy models treat technological change as endogenous, responding to socio-economic variables. Three main elements in models of technological innovation are: (i) corporate investment in research and development, (ii) spillovers from R&D, and (iii) technology learning, especially learning-by-doing. The incorporation of induced technological change in different types of environmental-economic models tends to reduce the costs of environmental policy, accelerates abatement and may lead to positive spillover and negative leakage

Building KidPad: An Application for Children's Collaborative Storytelling

Collaborating in small groups can be beneficial to children's learning and socializing. However, there is currently little computer support for children's collaborative activities. This was our motivation for building KidPad, a collaborative storytelling tool for children. KidPad provides children with drawing, typing, and hyperlinking capabilities in a large, two-dimensional canvas. It supports collaboration by accepting input from multiple mice. In building KidPad, we developed solutions to problems common to all single-display groupware applications for children: obtaining input from multiple devices, and using an intuitive user interface metaphor that can support collaboration. Our solution for obtaining input from multiple devices was MID, an architecture written in Java. We addressed the need for an appropriate user interface metaphor byusing the local tools metaphor. This paper describes our work on MID and local tools in the context of building of KidPad, and aims to provide developers with valuable insights into how to develop collaborative applications for children. (UMIACS-TR-2003-44) (HCIL-2003-18

Accuracy, Target Reentry and Fitts' Law Performance of Preschool Children Using Mice

Several experiments by psychologists and human factors researchers have shown that when young children execute pointing tasks, they perform at levels below older children and adults. However, these experiments were not conducted with the purpose of providing guidelines for the design of graphical user interfaces. To address this need, we conducted a study to gain a better understanding of 4 and 5 year-old children's use of mice. We compared the performance of thirteen 4 year-olds, thirteen 5 year-olds and thirteen young adults in point-and-click tasks. As expected, we found age had a significant effect on accuracy, target reentry and Fitts' law's index of performance. We also found that target size had a significant effect on accuracy and target reentry. Measuring movement time at four different times (first entering target, last entering target, pressing button, releasing button) yielded the result tha Fitts' law models children well only for the first time they enter the target. Another interesting result was that using the adjusted index of difficulty (IDe) in Fitts' law calculations yielded lower linear regression correlation coefficients than using the unadjusted index of difficulty (ID). These results provide valuable guidelines for the design of graphical user interfaces for young children, in particular when it comes to sizing visual targets. They also suggest designers should adopt strategies to accommodate users with varying levels of skill. (UMIACS-2003-42) (HCIL-2003-16