Patrimonio cultural subacuático español ante tribunales extranjeros o internacionales: Los casos de la "Mercedes" y del "Louisa"

Diversos asuntos clave han sacudido en la última década la cuestión de la protección del patrimonio cultural subacuático en España. En particular dos –el expolio de la fragata Mercedes frente al Algarve portugués y el expolio desde el buque Louisa en la Bahía de Cádiz– han protagonizado un renovado interés por la protección de un legado arqueológico demasiado olvidado en nuestro país. Ambos casos han sido judicializados: el primero ante los tribunales de los Estados Unidos de América y el segundo ante el Tribunal Internacional para el Derecho del Mar. En ambos casos las decisiones judiciales han sido favorables a España, confirmando en particular dos cuestiones –la aplicación del principio de inmunidad a los buques de Estado hundidos y la competencia soberana del Estado ribereños sobre su mar territorial en la protección del patrimonio cultural subacuático– que refuerzan la posición española en ese ámbito en particular. Sin embargo, aún se requieren más esfuerzos políticos y legislativos en orden a mejorar significativamente la protección del patrimonio cultural subacuático por España en sus aguas y más allá de las misma

Three essays in human capital formation. From colonial institutions in the Americas to early Catalan industrialization

[eng] This doctoral thesis aims to investigate the role of human capital in some of the most economically dynamic areas under the control of the Hispanic monarchy. The period covered by this study extends from the 18th century, in regions that formed part of the colonial empire during the Old Regime, or in the peninsula itself during the pre-industrial period, to the creation of the 19th-century mass education systems during the transition to the liberal state. First, this research attempts to contribute to the debate on the role of institutions in human capital formation, transmission and persistence. With this objective in mind, an analysis of the case of the Guarani missions, which were established and led by the Jesuits in the 18th century, was performed. Moreover, it presents new quantitative evidence that encompasses a theoretical framework for reviewing the paradox of human capital and early industrialization in Catalonia from the beginning of the 18th century until the eve of the Civil War. In order to provide new indicators that contribute to a quantitative discussion on economic history, this research focused on the simplest form of human capital: basic literacy (the ability to read and write) and numeracy (the ability to count). After a review of the existing literature linking human capital and economic development in the introduction (Chapter 1), three essays are presented. The first, in Chapter 2, uses the age-heaping methodology to analyse the level of numeracy achieved by the Guarani missions during the 18th century, in which the Jesuits were responsible for educating the indigenous population, within the colonial context of the modern period, and allows for an assessment of the weight of institutions in human capital formation and transmission. The results reveal the high levels of numeracy achieved by the Jesuit missions and a wide diversity of institutions and situations within territories under the colonial rule of the Hispanic kings during the modern period, when the areas with the greatest economic dynamism had some institution that facilitated the transmission of elementary human capital; they also reveal, however, that the more extractive institutions hindered this process. Next, Chapter 3 focuses on Catalonia at the beginning of the 18th century and, using the same age-heaping methodology, examines the level of human capital in a varied sample of Catalan localities and by various occupations and social classes. Early 18th-century Catalonia had arithmetic levels that were relatively high in certain sectors, occupations and social groups and, more importantly, that were comparable to other dynamic areas of Europe. These contributions are consistent with the literature that examined the role that may have been played by useful knowledge in the promotion of innovation in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution to explain how economies embarked upon the path to modern economic growth. The third essay, in Chapter 4, then sets out to study the municipal-scale evolution of literacy rates in Catalonia between 1860 and 1930, for both men and women, in a key period for Catalan society and economy. The results show that in 1860, urban areas of Catalonia had higher literacy rates, although there were notable exceptions, and that the evolution between 1860 and 1900 was marked by a significant improvement that did not lead to increased territorial inequalities unlike the situation in Spain as a whole. Finally, Chapter 5 of the thesis presents some conclusions and proposes that a reassessment of the human capital paradox and early industrialization by means of new quantitative indicators from the European periphery, specifically in the case of Catalonia, may contribute to the debate on the measurement of human capital accumulation and its relationship with economic development.[cat] Aquesta tesi doctoral té com a objectiu investigar el paper del capital humà en algunes de les àrees econòmicament més dinàmiques sota el control de la monarquia hispana. El període cobert per aquest estudi s'estén des del segle XVIII, en les regions que van formar part de l'imperi colonial durant l'Antic Règim, o en la mateixa península durant el període preindustrial, fins a la creació dels sistemes d'educació massiva de segle XIX durant la transició a l'estat liberal. En primer lloc, aquesta investigació intent contribuir al debat sobre el paper de les institucions en la formació, transmissió i persistència del capital humà. Amb aquest objectiu, s'ha realitzat una anàlisi del cas de les missions guaranís, establertes i dirigides pels jesuïtes al segle XVIII. A més, es presenten noves proves quantitatives que abasten un marc teòric per revisar la paradoxa el capital humà i la industrialització primerenca a Catalunya des de principis de segle XVIII fins a la vigília de la Guerra Civil. Per tal de proporcionar nous indicadors que contribueixin a un debat quantitatiu sobre la història econòmica, aquesta investigació es va centrar en la forma més simple de capital humà: l'alfabetització bàsica (la capacitat de llegir i escriure) i el càlcul (la capacitat de comptar). Després d'un examen de la bibliografia existent que vincula el capital humà i el desenvolupament econòmic en la introducció (Capítol 1), es presenten tres assajos. El primer, en el capítol 2, utilitza la metodologia de càlcul numèric per edats per analitzar el nivell de coneixements numèrics assolit per les missions guaranís durant el segle XVIII, en què els jesuïtes es van encarregar d'educar a la població indígena, en el context colonial del període modern, i permet avaluar el pes de les institucions en la formació i transmissió del capital humà. Els resultats revelen els alts nivells de capacitat numèrica assolits per les missions jesuítiques i una gran diversitat d'institucions i situacions dins dels territoris sota el domini colonial dels reis hispànics durant el període modern, quan les zones de major dinamisme econòmic comptaven amb alguna institució que facilitava la transmissió del capital humà elemental; també revelen, però, que les institucions més extractives obstaculitzaven aquest procés. A continuació, el capítol 3 se centra en la Catalunya de principis de segle XVIII i, utilitzant la mateixa metodologia de l'època, examina el nivell de capital humà en una variada mostra de localitats catalanes i per diverses ocupacions i classes socials. La Catalunya de principis de segle XVIII tenia nivells aritmètics relativament alts en determinats sectors, ocupacions i grups socials i, el que és més important, eren comparables a altres zones dinàmiques d'Europa. Aquestes contribucions són coherents amb la literatura que va examinar el paper que poden haver exercit els coneixements útils en la promoció de la innovació en les primeres fases de la Revolució Industrial per a explicar com les economies van emprendre el camí cap al creixement econòmic modern. A continuació, el tercer assaig, en el capítol 4, es proposa estudiar l'evolució a escala municipal de les taxes d'alfabetització a Catalunya entre 1860 i 1930, tant d'homes com de dones, en un període clau per a la societat i l'economia catalanes. Els resultats mostren que en 1860, les zones urbanes de Catalunya tenien taxes d'alfabetització més elevades, tot i que amb notables excepcions, i que l'evolució entre 1860 i 1900 es va caracteritzar per una important millora que no va provocar un augment de les desigualtats territorials, a diferència de la situació en el conjunt d'Espanya. Finalment, en el capítol 5 de la tesi es presenten algunes conclusions i es proposa que una reavaluació de la paradoxa el capital humà i de la industrialització primerenca mitjançant nous indicadors quantitatius de la perifèria europea, concretament en el cas de Catalunya, pot contribuir al debat sobre el mesurament de l'acumulació de capital humà i la seva relació amb el desenvolupament econòmic

Spanish practice on ancient sunken warships and other State vessels

En este capítulo se analiza la práctica contemporánea española relativa a los antiguos buques de guerra y otros buques de Estado que se hundieron y a su consideración como patrimonio cultural subacuático. Respecto de los galeones españoles que se hundieron en mares extranjeros, España ha reclamado judicialmente, cuando ha sido posible, sus derechos de propiedad y su inmunidad soberana sobre los pecios; cuando no ha sido posible, la acción diplomática española se ha centrado en exigir su protección internacional como patrimonio cultural subacuático. También se analiza la práctica española en los casos en los que un pecio de un buque de guerra extranjero se descubre en el mar territorial español.This chapter analysis the current Spanish practice on ancient sunken warships and other State vessels, as well as their consideration as underwater cultural heritage. When it has been possible, Spain has always judicially claimed her property rights and her sovereign immunity on her galleons sunken abroad. When legal actions do not exist, Spanish diplomatic practice has consisted in claiming the international protection of these sunken vessels as underwater cultural heritage. This chapter also analysis the Spanish practice when a foreing sunken warship is discovered inside the Spanish territorial sea

El mármol de Macael. Evolución de los medios de transporte

Aunque los productos de cantera tienden a emplearse cerca del lugar de extracción, en ocasiones, por su calidad, esta norma se rompe. Es el caso de muchas rocas ornamentales y, en particular, del mármol de Macael, demandado desde hace siglos para embellecer abundantes y significativas edificaciones. Los medios para el transporte el mármol han ido evolucionando con el tiempo. Hasta finales del XIX los carros de bueyes se empleaban tanto para llevar el producto desde las canteras a los talleres de corte, como para su traslado hasta el destino final o hasta la costa para embarcarlo. A partir de 1894 el ferrocarril comenzó a adquirir protagonismo para sacar el mármol de la comarca, y desde 1950 los camiones fueron sustituyendo a los carros para llevar el producto bruto hasta las fábricas de elaboración. Desde entonces el transporte por carretera fue ganando terreno en detrimento del ferrocarril, sustitución que fue definitiva en 1984 con el cierre de la línea férrea Guadix-Almendricos. Actualmente, el transporte por carretera es el medio habitual para llevar el producto a los destinos finales nacionales y europeos, y para su traslado a los puertos en los que se embarca hacia otros destinos exteriores. Quarry material is normally used near its extraction place. However, we often find that it is not the case, especially with decorative rocks. This happens to the marble from Macael (Almería, Southern Spain), which has had for centuries a great demand to beatify many significant buildings. The means of marble transport have evolved over the time. Till the end of the 19th Century, ox carts were used to carry the quarry material from the explotations to the cutting establishments, as well as to transport the processed products to its final destination or to the coast fot its shipping. From 1894 on, the train became an important means of transport to take the marble out of the region and since 1950 lorries have replaced the carts to take the quarry to the processing firms. Since then the road transport has become more important than the train. It was finally completedly replaced in 1984, when the train line Guadix-Almendricos was closed. Nowadays, road transport is the most common means of transport to take the product to its final destination in Spain and Europe, or to the ports where it will be shipped

Territory, Cluster and Competitiveness of the Intensive Horticulture in Almería (Spain)

Almería is Spain’s leading area for the production and exportation of vegetables. In this province we can find the largest area of greenhouses in the world, around which a major agroindustrial cluster has arisen. The present study follows a holistic approach to analyse its development and the modification of its sources of advantage. For this purpose, Porter’s theoretical and analytical framework is considered. The particular natural resources of the territory were fundamental in the growth of this sector in the 1970’s, allowing it to achieve absolute comparative advantages. Nowadays, the agroindustrial cluster that has built up around the greenhouse industry has enhanced the competitiveness of the sector by generating systemic and dynamic competitive advantages

Local development policy in the Marble Area in Almería

En Almería se encuentra ubicada la principal zona marmórea de España tanto por sus reservas como por su calidad. En torno a la producción, elaboración y comercialización de este producto se ha generado un importante sistema productivo local. En este artículo se analizan los planes de desarrollo local implantados en la Comarca desde mediados de la década de los ochenta del pasado siglo, y se muestran las repercusiones que han tenido en la mejora de la productividad y de la competitividad del sector en los ámbitos de la extracción, la transformación, la comercialización y la tecnología.The main marble area in Spain, regarding its reserves and quality, is located in Almería. Around the production, elaboration and trading of this produce, a relevant local production system has arisen. This paper analyzes the local development plans implemented in the region since mid 80’s. It also shows the impacts on a higher productivity and sector competitiveness in the extraction, transformation, trading and technical fields

The marble quarries of Macael. From “free and communal” to council property

La suerte de los habitantes de Macael ha estado unida al mármol desde tiempo inmemorial. El alcance del recurso desborda las fronteras locales: durante los últimos años del pasado siglo en el entorno de Macael se extraía más del 40% del mármol nacional, siendo España uno de los líderes mundiales del mercado de esta piedra ornamental. Este artículo analiza los cambios que se han producido en el sistema de acceso a las canteras desde 1573, año en el que se realizó el apeo de la villa de Macael, hasta la actualidad. Tras no pocas vicisitudes, en las que el pueblo de Macael ha tenido que defender la propiedad sobre las canteras, tanto frente a intereses particulares como de la administración pública, los bienes que eran comunales, y por ello de libre acceso para los lugareños, pasaron a ser propiedad del Ayuntamiento, que en la actualidad es también titular de la concesión de explotación del mármol, y la arrienda a los empresarios que desean extraer el mineral. The fate of the inhabitants of Macael has been closely linked to the production of marble from time immemorial. The scope of these resources transcended local borders during the latter part of last century; thus, in the last few years, the marble extracted from the surroundings of Macael accounted for over 40% of the national production, with Spain being one of the leading world producers of this ornamental rock. This paper analyzes the changes that have taken place in the quarry access system since 1573, when the town of Macael was surveyed, up to the present time. After many historical changes in which the people of Macael have had to fight for ownership of the quarries, both against private interests and public administration, the assets which were communal, and therefore freely accessible to the locals, became the property of the Local Council, which at present also holds the exploitation concession of the marble resources and the power to grant leases to entrepreneurs wishing to extract this mineral

A 3D multi-agent-based model for lumen morphogenesis: the role of the biophysical properties of the extracellular matrix

The correct function of many organs depends on proper lumen morphogenesis, which requires the orchestration of both biological and mechanical aspects. However, how these factors coordinate is not yet fully understood. Here, we focus on the development of a mechanistic model for computationally simulating lumen morphogenesis. In particular, we consider the hydrostatic pressure generated by the cells'' fluid secretion as the driving force and the density of the extracellular matrix as regulators of the process. For this purpose, we develop a 3D agent-based-model for lumen morphogenesis that includes cells'' fluid secretion and the density of the extracellular matrix. Moreover, this computer-based model considers the variation in the biological behavior of cells in response to the mechanical forces that they sense. Then, we study the formation of the lumen under different-mechanical scenarios and conclude that an increase in the matrix density reduces the lumen volume and hinders lumen morphogenesis. Finally, we show that the model successfully predicts normal lumen morphogenesis when the matrix density is physiological and aberrant multilumen formation when the matrix density is excessive

The Sustainable Management of Metals: An Analysis of Global Research

The objective of this study was to analyze research trends in the field of sustainable management of metals on a global level between 1993 and 2017. To do so, a bibliometric analysis was carried out on a total of 6967 articles. The results revealed the growing interest in this research field, particularly over the last five year-period during which 63% of all articles were published. The three journals in which most articles had been published were the Journal of Cleaner Production, ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, and Chemsuschem. The countries that published the most articles were China, the United States, India, Germany, and the United Kingdom. A sizeable network of collaboration has been established between countries for the joint publication of studies. The main lines of research have been focused on metal decontamination in water and soil, waste management oriented towards reuse and recycling, and the innovation of processes for cleaner and more efficient production. The results revealed the need for comprehensive studies that integrate different disciplines within the same analytical framework, and to promote research that contributes to the different dimensions of sustainability (environmental, economic, and social)