Why don't Africans use social media to revolt like Arabs? (guest-blog)

If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?” Apparently not. For there to be ‘sound’ there needs to be ears that hear the vibrations made by the falling tree. This philosophical riddle speaks volumes about the muted protests happening in parts of sub-Saharan Africa at the moment – and of the seeming disinterest both in the countries where they are started and in the international media

The invasion of Iraq: a challenge to the Charter Prohibition of Violence in Inter-State Relations

Just before its armed invasion of Iraq, the US tried but failed to get the UN to sanction war on Iraq. Having failed in that effort, the US on 20 March 2003 invaded Iraq with the armed support of Australia, Britain and Spain. The invasion was greeted with world-wide condemnation and street protests. The US and its allies were unmoved. It was claimed that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction posing a threat to the world, and that, therefore, it was necessary to militarily overwhelm and disarm it. It was also claimed that President Saddam Hussein was a ruthless dictator, and that, therefore, there had to be a regime change in Iraq for the benefit of the Iraqi people. Thirdly, it was claimed that Iraq was linked to Al Qaeda, the elusive terrorist group that was thrust into the international limelight by its spectacular attacks in the US on 11 September 2001, and that, therefore, the war on Iraq was simply one phase of the wider war against international terrorism. This article examines the legality of the war on Iraq in the light of the reasons pleaded in its justification. This is done against the backdrop of the norm of jus cogens prohibiting the threat or use of force by states in their international relations as well as the law of international humanitarian law prohibiting certain means and methods in the conduct of war. The article also considers the ramifications of the war as well as the responsibility, under international law, of the leaders of the invading powers. It is the contention of this article that the war on Iraq breaches the law of the United Nations and violates international law. This transgression of the law, it is argued, engages the international responsibility of the invading powers and the major actors involved in the aggressive war. The article concludes that the war portends certain dangerous consequences regionally and internationally

The Administration of Justice in a Bi-Jural Country: The United Republic of Cameroon.

This work is an exercise in practical comparative law. It examines how justice is administered in a unitary State with two extraneous legal systems, the common law and the civil law. The whole work is divided into six main parts. Part One explores the phenomenon of law in pre-colonial societies and explains how Cameroon came to have two extraneous legal systems. The German, French and British systems of colonial justice in Cameroon are critically discussed in Part Two. Part Three takes the machinery of justice as its focus of inquiry. It begins with a survey of the constitutional setting and them proceeds to deal with the courts system and the outward manifestation of the legal order - the magistracy and the legal profession. Part Five treats the administration of criminal and military justice while Part Four concentrates on those branches of the civil law on which there is now a common substantive law and procedure, namely, labour law, le contentieux administratif, and customary law. Part Six rounds off this study with an examination of a number of topical issues - human rights, law reform, legal education, and the cost of justice. The entire thesis runs to twenty chapters. Style and treatment have not been the same in all of them. Nor has an attempt been made to give equal space and attention to each part or chapter - as if one were dividing an academic cake into symmetrical slices. There are topics which call for and have received more detailed analysis than others

Revolutionary Overthrow of Constitutional Orders in Africa

The title of my Professorial Inaugural Lecture is ‘Revolutionary Overthrow of Constitutional Orders in Africa’. It is a subject at the intersection of three disciplines: jurisprudence and legal philosophy, constitutional law and power politics, and civil-military relations, i.e. military security policy which is one aspect of national security policy.2 The subject is of interest in at least four aspects: (i) it problematises the inescapable question of governance in the African continent; (ii) it challenges the democratization agenda in Africa - how does one democratize not only political governance but also the instruments of violence in the state? (iii) it challenges African constitutional lawyers and policy makers to seek a constitutional model that addresses the enduring menace of the power of the gun in African affairs and the changing role of the military in African politics; and (iv) it underscores national security and sovereignty concerns

Empirical studies on culture, individual finance choices, and the performance of financial intermediaries

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2021.ENGLISH SUMMARY : Finance represents an important axle of economic growth and development globally. Through financial intermediation, savings can be transmitted into investment, which then has an impact on growth and development. Across the developing world, Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) play a key role in harnessing savings of low income earners who make up majority of the populations therein. To ensure reduced intermediation costs wherein a smaller proportion of such savings is lost or left untransmitted into investment, more efficient financial sectors are needed. Where financial sectors are weaker and less efficient, higher intermediation costs result. This may have an effect on the important intermediation function of harnessing and transmitting saving to investment, and on the performance and ultimately sustainability of intermediaries like MFIs which are active in the developing world. In some cases, this may even give rise to large informal finance sectors, wherein exploitative practices of informal finance service providers then leads to even higher intermediation costs. In recent decades however, financial sector reforms like liberalisation and innovations stemming from technological advances like mobile money have significantly reduced intermediation costs across the developing world and strengthened the financial sectors of countries therein. However, informal finance has remained popular and resilient in some countries and regions. The continued popularity of informal finance mechanisms in some parts of the world has baffled researchers for a long time. It has been easy, and logically so, to blame credit market imperfections like the cost of using formal financial services for the growth and popularity of informal finance. Continuing down this path of blaming credit market imperfections for the resilience of informal finance may however only tell part of the story given a lot of the cost drivers which have been behind the imperfections in credit markets have been reduced. In this study, we hypothesis that the cultural environment in which individuals undertake financial transactions and in which financial intermediaries operate has an effect both on the individual decision to use formal or informal financial services, and on the performance of financial intermediaries, MFIs in this case. Theoretically, culture, depending on its enshrined values – what a society considers good or bad – has important bearings on the cost of designing, delivering, and finally using formal financial services. Four standalone studies are conducted to assess the effect of culture on finance decisions and outcomes, the first two on individual finance choices wherein cross-sectional data is used and probit models applied in the empirical estimation; and the last two on performance of MFIs, with the use of panel data, and a random effects model in the third, and Data Envelopment Analysis, followed by a tobit model in the fourth. Individual- and firm-level data from both developed and developing economies relating to finance choices and performance respectively is extracted from global sources like the World Bank, and culture data from Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions database and the World Values Survey. Stellenbosch University Findings of the empirical analysis indicate that culture has an effect on individual finance choices, and firm performance. Individuals are more likely to use formal financial services in more individualistic, longer-term oriented, and more indulgent cultures. The use of informal finance mechanisms is more likely in high uncertainty avoidance, high trust, and more religious cultures. These findings are supported by empirical and theoretical literature on differential levels of trust and social capital in different cultural contexts, which then affect the level and costs of financial intermediation. At the firm level, MFIs achieve better financial performance in high power distance and more individualistic cultures, and better social performance in more masculine and more indulgent cultures. Empirical and theoretical literature on the level of information asymmetry and asymmetry reduction strategies and related costs in different cultures support these findings. These findings have policy implications for developing and emerging economies. The findings highlight the need for global development partners, policymakers and practitioners to consider cultural influences in formulating and pursuing their development-related objectives, especially in relation to financial services provision. In particular, development-related policies must be customised to respective regions and countries due to cultural differences which may influence the cost and ultimately ability to reach these objectives. The empirical evidence presented here opposes the application of a ‗one-size fits all‘ rule with respect to development strategies as has been the case in much of the past. From a theoretical perspective, the present research provides further understanding on individual finance choices in different cultural contexts and how these choices go on to affect the performance of financial institutions, MFIs in this case. It is a first-hand attempt to link individual choices, firm performance, and culture. The study introduces the Technology acceptance model (TAM), a model which has been applied more to technology and innovation, to financial inclusion. It additionally links culture to market imperfections like information asymmetry, arguing that these imperfections have a dual effect on both the supply and demand sides. Thirdly, the study links social capital to cultural measures like trust, providing deeper insight on the importance of this capital and its effects on financial services provision in different contexts.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Geen opsomming beskikbaar.Doctora

Absolute laserspektrometrische Stoffmengenanteilmessungen: Möglichkeiten für rückführbare Atemanalytik

Laser spectroscopic techniques such as tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS), quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy (QCLAS) and cavity ring down spectroscopy (CDRS) have been shown to be capable of performing absolute amount fraction measurements of gas species such as CO2 and CO. These techniques have been proven to be very sensitive, selective and have real-time responses. The aim of this work was to: perform absolute amount fraction measurements of breath gas species using TDLAS, QCLAS and CRDS, reliably quantify breath gas species, address metrological data quality objectives, i.e. uncertainty and traceability issues, as well as define and reduce the uncertainty of amount fraction results from the typical 10 % to levels suitable to fit breath analysis purposes, 5 % and below. Thus, aiming at traceable amount fraction results, measurements have been performed using TDLAS, QCLAS and CRDS based on the absolute method TILSAM. GUM compliant uncertainty budgets for spectrometric amount fraction results were developed. TDLAS in combination with single-pass and multipass gas cells has been used to perform absolute measurements of the CO2 amount fractions. To check the TDL spectrometer for its feasibility for absolute amount fraction measurements and to be operated on the basis of the TILSAM method, gravimetric gas mixtures of CO2 in the range of 20 to 60 mmol•mol-1 were quantified. At the 50 mmol•mol-1 level (exhaled breath level) the relative standard uncertainties of the spectrometric CO2 amount fraction results are in the ±0.7 % range. The intra-pulse mode QCLAS has been utilized to measure absolute CO amount fractions at the 100 µmol•mol-1 and 1000 µmol•mol-1 levels based on the TILSAM method. Although, not at the exhaled breath level of 1-3 µmol•mol-1, the feasibility of intra-pulse mode QCLAS for CO measurements has been shown. The standard uncertainty of the CO amount fraction results, limited by the uncertainties of the line strengths used which were in the range of 2-5 % relative, are in the range of ±2.3 % relative. A CRDS spectrometer has been used to carry out absolute CO2 amount fraction measurements referring to the TILSAM method. The spectrometric results were in good agreement with the respective gravimetric reference values. The standard uncertainties of the CO2 amount fraction results, also limited by the uncertainty of the used line strength, were in the range of ±2.1 % relative. In a separate measurement, it has been shown in coperation with other partners that CO amount fractions in the nmol•mol-1 levels can be quantified using CRDS. It has been found that the TILSAM method suffers from the unavailability of traceable line data. Thus, line strengths and broadening coefficients of CO2 in the ro-vibrational band around 2 µm have been measured. The derived line data are in agreement to a high degree with published data. Compared to literature, improved GUM compliant standard uncertainties in the ±0.6 % range for the measured line strengths have been reported. The validity of the absolute method, TILSAM, has been further proven in a measurement campaign. The TDLAS-based quantifications were performed on CO2 at the 300 and 500 µmol•mol-1 level. The spectrometric results from the different laboratories were in good agreement, expressed by a degree of equivalence being in the 1 % range, with the respective comparison reference values (CRVs).Laserbasierte Spektroskopietechniken, wie z.B. die abstimmbare Diodenlaser-Absorptionsspektroskopie (TDLAS), die Quantenkaskadenlaser-Absorptionsspektroskopie (QCLAS) oder die "Cavity Ring-Down" Spektroskopie (CRDS) haben gezeigt, dass sie in der Lage sind, absolute Gaskonzentrationen von molekularen Spezies wie CO2 oder CO zu messen. Diese Laser-basierten Techniken sind sehr nachweisempfindlich, selektiv und können in „Real-Time-Response“ arbeiten. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, absolute Stoffmengenanteile von Molekülspezies in Gasgemischen mit Hilfe von TDLAS, QCLAS und CRDS zu messen, zuverlässig zu quantifizieren und dabei messtechnische Datenqualitätsmerkmale, wie Messunsicherheit und Rückführbarkeit zu adressieren. Hintergrund für die Aufgabenstellung war es, die Anwendung dieser Spektroskopietechniken und der entwickelten Analyseverfahren in der Atemanalytik vorzubereiten. Messunsicherheiten sollten hierzu definiert und ggf. verringert werden. Die Unsicherheit der bestimmten Stoffmengenanteile konnte dabei von typischen 10% auf ein Niveau von 5 % und weniger reduziert werden, was für Atemanalysezwecke ausreichend ist. Die mittels TDLAS, QCLAS und CRDS ausgeführte Stoffmengenanteilsbestimmung basierte auf der sog. TILSAM-Methode. GUM-konforme Unsicherheitsbudgets für spektrometrische Stoffmengenanteilsmessungen wurden entwickelt. Um absolute Messungen von CO2 Stoffmengeanteile durchführen zu können, wurden Single-Pass- und Multi-Pass-Gaszellen in Kombination mit TDLAS verwendet. Zur Überprüfung des Einsatzes des TDLAS-Spektrometers für die Machbarkeit von absoluten Stoffmengenanteilsmessungen, die auf der Grundlage des TILSAM-Verfahrens durchgeführt werden, wurden gravimetrisch hergestellte Gasgemische von CO2 in Stickstoff im Bereich von 20 bis 60 mmol•mol-1 CO2 quantifiziert. Auf der 50 mmol•mol-1 Ebene (Atemluftkonzentration) konnte eine relative Standardmessunsicherheit der spektrometrischen CO2-Bestimmung von ± 0,7% demonstriert werden. Intrapuls-QCLAS wurde verwendet, um absolute CO-Konzentrationen im Bereich von 100 µmol•mol-1 bis 1000 µmol•mol-1 gemäß der TILSAM-Methode zu messen. Damit konnte die Machbarkeit der Intrapuls-QCLAS für absolute CO-Stoffmengenmessungen gezeigt werden. Die relative Standardmessunsicherheit der bestimmten CO-Stoffmengenanteile ist durch die Unsicherheiten der Eingangsgröße Linienstärke limitiert, die mit 2-5% spezifiziert waren, und lag damit im Bereich von ± 2.3%. Die Güte der spektrometrisch mit TDLAS und QCLAS bestimmten Stoffmengenanteile wurde anhand eines Vergleiches mit jeweiligen gravimetrischen Referenzwerten bestimmt. Darüber hinaus wurde auch ein CRDS-Spektrometer zur Durchführung absoluter CO2-Stoffmengenanteilsmessungen auf Basis der TILSAM-Methode eingesetzt. Die spektrometrisch erzielten Ergebnisse waren in guter Übereinstimmung mit den jeweiligen gravimetrischen Referenzwerten. Die relative Standardmessunsicherheit der CO2-Stoffmengenanteile wurde ebenfalls durch die Unsicherheit der verwendeten Linienstärke beschränkt, und lag im Bereich von ±2,1%. Da bekannt war, dass die Anwendung der TILSAM-Methode durch die Nichtverfügbarkeit von rückgeführten Spektralliniendaten, wie die Linienstärke, beschränkt ist, wurden Linienstärken und Verbreiterungskoeffizienten von CO2 auch im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bestimmt. Dafür wurden Absorptionslinien im ro-vibronischen Kombinationsschwingungsband von CO2 um 2 µm ausgewählt. Die so abgeleiteten Liniendaten stimmen zu einem hohen Grad mit den veröffentlichten Literaturdaten überein. Im Vergleich zu diesen werden die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ermittelten Daten aber mit einem GUM-konformen Unsicherheitsbudget angegeben. Die entsprechenden Standardmessunsicherheiten der Linienstärken liegen dabei im Bereich von ± 0,6%. Die in dieser Arbeit weiterentwickelte TILSAM-Methode konnte darüber hinaus in einer internationalen Messkampagne eingesetzt werden. Die TDLAS-basierte Quantifizierung von CO2 wurde bei 300 und 500 µmol•mol-1 durchgeführt. Die spektrometrisch erzielten Ergebnisse aus den verschiedenen Labors waren in guter Übereinstimmung mit dem Referenzwert, ausgedrückt durch einen Grad der Übereinstimmung (Degree-of-Equivalence) im Bereich von 1%

Antifungal susceptibility profiles and risk factors of vaginal candidiasis amongst female university students in southwest region, Cameroon

Vaginal candidiasis (VC) is second to bacterial vaginitis, as the most common opportunistic mucosal infection that affects large numbers of otherwise healthy women of childbearing age. The incidence of VC is significantly modified by dressing patterns and aberrant health-care practices. Contemporary young women often shift their preference from skirt to trousers and leggingswhich also coincides with a rise in auto-medication and over-the-counter drugs phenomena in our communities. These could result in increased occurrence of vaginal candidiasis infection and antifungal drug resistance. This was a cross-sectional study conducted between March 2011 and August 2011 among150 female students(aged 17-29 years) of the University of Buea. Socio-demographics information, risk factors and clinical symptoms were gotten through a standard questionnaire. Vaginal swabs were collected from each participant and cultured on Sabouraud'sdextrose agar supplemented with chloramphenicol (SDA-CAF). Identification and antifungal susceptibility testing was performed following standard microbiological procedures. Of the 150 participants who submitted vaginal swabs, yeasts was isolated in 98 (65.3%). Of the 98 yeasts isolates, 73.5% were Candida species, mainly C. albicans (65.3%). Overhalf (64.7%) ofstudyparticipantshadapreferencefortrousers,however, this attitude was not significantly associated (p = 0.559) with candidiasis.Previous episodes of vaginal infection and treatment for candidiasis were significantly associated with VC (p = 0.004). Antifungal susceptibility results showed a high resistance to fluconazole (82.0%), nystatin (80.0%) and ketoconazole (72.0%), while clotrimazole (50.0%) was the most activeantifungal drug. There was a high prevalence of VC in this study population with previous vaginal infectionbeing important risk factor for reoccurrence. Clotrimazole was the drug of choice in the treatment of VC in this population.Key words: vaginal candidiasis, risk factors, antifungal susceptibility profilesFrench AbstractLa candidose vaginale (CV) est la deuxième infection opportuniste de la muqueuse la plus fréquente (après la vaginite bactérienne) qui affecte un grand nombre de femmes en âge de procréer. L'incidence de la CV est affectée de façon significative par certaines habitudes vestimentaires et pratiques de soins de santé « aberrante »s. Chez les jeunes femmes contemporaines, les pantalons et leggings sont de plus en plus préférés aux jupes, ce qui coïncide aussi avec une augmentation du phénomène d'automédication dans nos communautés. Ces deux facteurs pourraient entraîner une augmentation de la prévalence de l'infection à Candida vaginale et la résistance aux antifongiques. La présente étude transversale a été menée entre Mars et Août 2011 portait sur 150 étudiantes âgées de 17 à 29 ans, à l'Université de Buea (Cameroun). Elle avait pour objectifs majeurs d’évaluer les profils de sensibilité aux antifongiques ainsi que les facteurs de risque de candidose vaginale chez les étudiantes universitaires. Les données sociodémographiques, informations sur les facteurs de risque et les symptômes cliniques ont été explores à l’aide d’un questionnaire semi-structuré. Des spécimens vaginaux ont été prélevés dans chaque participante et soumis à une culture sur le dextrose gélose de Sabouraud supplémenté par le chloramphénicol (SDA-CAF). Les tests d'identification et de sensibilité antifongique ont été réalisés suivant des procédures microbiologiques standard. Parmi les 150 participants qui ont soumis des prélèvements vaginaux, des levures ont été isolées de 98 personnes (65,3%). Sur les 98 levures isolées, 73,5% étaient des espèces de Candida, principalement C. albicans(65,3%). Plus de la moitié des participants (64.7%) ont exprimé des préférences pour les pantalons et autres styles vestimentaires émergents. Cependant, de telles attitudes n’ont pas paru statistiquement associées à l’occurrence des candidoses au sein de la population ciblée (p = 0.559). Des précédents épisodes d'infection vaginale et le traitement de la candidose reportés par les participantes étaient significativement associés à CV (p = 0,004). Les résultats de sensibilité antifongiques ont montré une grande résistance au Fluconazole (82,0%), Nystatine (80,0%) et Kétoconazole (72,0%), tandis que le Clotrimazole (50,0%) était le médicament antifongique le plus actif. Il y avait une forte prévalence de CV dans cette population d'étude avec infection vaginale précédente étant facteur de risque important pour la répétition. Le Clotrimazole s’est avéré comme étant le médicament de choix dans le traitement des CV dans cette population, malgré la forte résistance.Mots clés: Candidose Vaginale, facteurs de risque, les profils de sensibilité aux antifongique

Seasonal variation and prevalence of tuberculosis among health seekers in the south western Cameroon

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) in Fako health District, to assess the effects of seasonal variation on the incidence of TB in the study area and to use sentinel analysis to predict areas of greatest infection. Design: A prospective cross sectional study based on laboratory investigations. Setting: Fako health District, South Western Carneroon. Results: The prevalence of TB was 23.3%.Tuberculosis was significantly more prevalent in males (12.6%) as compared with females (10.7%) (P = 0.034). TB prevalence was significantly different between age groups, with the highest number of cases recorded in the age group 21-30 (P = 0.002). When the health areas were compared, TB prevalence varied significantly (P = 0.001), with Limbe Town recording the highest number of TB cases. We recorded more TB cases in the wet season compared with the dry season and the difference was statistically significant (P = 0.000). There was a significant drop in the prevalence of TB over the study period (P = 0.000). Conclusion: This study is the first to report on the effects of season on the prevalence of TB in Cameroon. These findings will therefore provide additional useful base line data for setting up TB control strategies in Cameroon. The East African Medical Journal Vol. 83 (11) 2006: pp. 588-59