The cultural and social assimilation of immigrants, and systemic solutions - Poles in Norway and Ukrainians in Poland in the light of comparative research

The article presents the problem of migration and assimilation of newcomers in the countries of residence. One of the main reasons for migration are economic and social considerations, this applies to both non-European arrivals and internal migration. The aim of this study, conducted by scholars from Norway and Poland, is to compare systemic solutions both within the social legislation and the functioning of the labor market with respect to Poles and Ukrainians, confronting them with existing barriers regarding the possibility of assimilation and obstacles related to the transformation of economic into settlement migration. The methodological and theoretical basis of the team’s research is comparative methods, including comparative politics. The research on immigrants was conducted using both quantitative methods - statistical and qualitative data analysis - and research using the in-depth interview method. Poles and Ukrainians are not at the same stage of formal migration due to the formal plane. According to the analysis, Ukrainians have much greater opportunities for actual assimilation than Poles in Norway. Smaller cultural differences and linguistic barriers to the Ukrainians in Poland are conducive to this process. If the state and Polish society take advantage of this situation and enable the settlement of Ukrainians and make their job offers more attractive, there is a chance that they will fill the emerging demographic gap. It would be for the benefit of both societies

Kierunki ewolucji prawa wyborczego w Polsce a demokracja partycypacyjna

One highly significant phenomenon demonstrating that public life is becoming increasingly democratic is provided by the formal and material guaranty of the citizens’ political participation. Legitimization of power is an important issue. For the sake of simplicity, it may be said that one political option or another has won the elections. Under Polish conditions, an electoral victory means that a given party won more votes than any other. But by no means does it say that this party has won the support of a majority of voters. Poland has been ruled by the parties that have won anything from 20.41% of the votes, as the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) did in 1993, to the 41.51% Civic Platform (PO) won in 2007. This shows that power has been exercised by political parties that have not won the approval of a majority of voters. The picture looks even worse when the support rulers enjoy is not measured in terms of approval expressed by voters, but in terms of absolute values, i.e. the proportion of all citizens entitled to vote. The legitimization of power is extremely low when analyzed from this perspective. In the best case it amounts to 21.89% obtained by the victorious party, and 26.58% of all entitled to vote won by the coalition formed by the victorious parties to rule after the elections. Thus it is difficult to talk about democratic governance, understood as the rule of the majority. It should rather be concluded that the ruling parties are those that have won the largest support, which only means that they have collected more votes than any other political power taking part in the same elections. Understood in this way, power is not exercised on behalf of a majority, but by the best organized minority

Distortions of electoral law in the elections to the Polish Sejm and Senate

W artykule przeprowadzono analizę ewolucji parlamentarnego prawa wyborczego w Polsce. Zastosowano metodę analizy systemowej, prawno-porównawczą oraz metody historyczne. Przeprowadzono także analizę statystyczną. Wskazano na czynniki związane z regulacjami prawa wyborczego, które powodują deformację woli obywateli. W szczególności przedstawiono polityczne skutki kolejnych zmian ordynacji wyborczych i ich polityczną konotację. Wykazano w jaki sposób zmiany w prawie wyborczym deformują wolę obywateli. Zbadano również realny poziom legitymizacji władzy ustawodawczej w Polsce przez obywateli.The paper analyzes the evolution of parliamentary electoral law in Poland, applying the method of systemic analysis, the legal and comparative method and historical methods. A statistical analysis has also been conducted. The paper indicates what factors are related to electoral regulations that result in the deformation of the intentions of citizens. In particular, it discusses the political outcomes of the successive changes of electoral laws and their political context. It presents how the changes to electoral law deform the intentions of citizens. The paper also examines the real level of the legitimization of legislative power in Poland by citizens

Budowa podstaw systemu partyjnego współczesnej Rosji

The party system is only shaping in contemporary Russia. The process commenced in 1990 when the change of the Constitution provided for free establishment of political parties in Russia. Banning of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union resulted in numerous new parties emerging with an ambition of becoming a dominating party in Russian politics. These attempts failed to succeed. Dynamic development of political organizations was related to democratic election procedures. Quantitative development was not conducive for the stability of political stage. Dispersed, insignificant political parties were not an efficient instrument of political influence. There were numerous attempts to consolidate the groups of similar political platforms, yet they did not generated expected results. Even the most important political campaigns related to parliamentary or presidential elections were unable to consolidate political parties in Russia. The absence of a clear parliamentary majority as well as dispersion and a clearly confrontational policy of the parties was conducive for increasingly stronger presidential authority. The lack of a clear party system resulted in a failed attempt to restore the former  political  system. In 1992–1993 attempts were made to provide political support for the so-called reformatory government. They failed to generate any permanent organizational solutions. Political elite was unable to consolidate either around the strategic objectives or around their leaders. In the initial period of democracy shaping in Russia a party system did not provide any support for this democracy. It was rather its caricature.The party system is only shaping in contemporary Russia. The process commenced in 1990 when the change of the Constitution provided for free establishment of political parties in Russia. Banning of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union resulted in numerous new parties emerging with an ambition of becoming a dominating party in Russian politics. These attempts failed to succeed. Dynamic development of political organizations was related to democratic election procedures. Quantitative development was not conducive for the stability of political stage. Dispersed, insignificant political parties were not an efficient instrument of political influence. There were numerous attempts to consolidate the groups of similar political platforms, yet they did not generated expected results. Even the most important political campaigns related to parliamentary or presidential elections were unable to consolidate political parties in Russia. The absence of a clear parliamentary majority as well as dispersion and a clearly confrontational policy of the parties was conducive for increasingly stronger presidential authority. The lack of a clear party system resulted in a failed attempt to restore the former  political  system. In 1992–1993 attempts were made to provide political support for the so-called reformatory government. They failed to generate any permanent organizational solutions. Political elite was unable to consolidate either around the strategic objectives or around their leaders. In the initial period of democracy shaping in Russia a party system did not provide any support for this democracy. It was rather its caricature

Mechanizmy zwiększania partycypacji kobiet w wyborach

The degree to which women are represented in the organs of national authorities stirs considerable emotions. Proposals for legal regulations providing guarantees for the adequate representation of women in parliament are presented more and more often. The paper analyzes the means and methods for increasing women’s participation in politics, with particular attention placed on how this is provided for in electoral law. The paper places particular attention on the situation in Poland.The degree to which women are represented in the organs of national authorities stirs considerable emotions. Proposals for legal regulations providing guarantees for the adequate representation of women in parliament are presented more and more often. The paper analyzes the means and methods for increasing women’s participation in politics, with particular attention placed on how this is provided for in electoral law. The paper places particular attention on the situation in Poland

Wybory jako forma legitymizacji władzy w Polsce w dwudziestoleciu przemian ustrojowych

During the political transformation in Poland, electoral law was frequently changed. The general principles, already adopted in 1991, were maintained in parliamentary elections (to the Sejm). The changes only affected the detailed solutions concerning how the votes were calculated as mandates, and the sizes of constituencies. The so-called elective thresholds, which were introduced in 1993, have been maintained. In practice, the result of the current system of parliamentary elections is that the parties that attract approximately 25% of the votes cast by all those authorized to vote, win over half the parliamentary mandates, thereby exercising power. Therefore, the claim that a democratic electoral system is based on the principle of majority rule seems doubtful here, as what we actually get entails the rule of the largest social group, or at least the one that has the most effective organization. Contrary to popular belief, the majority elections to the Senate do not change the above rule. A voter supporting a given candidate in these elections is mainly directed by the political group which supports this candidate. The electoral system to the Senate was finally formed in 1991 and only slightly amended in 2001. Asingle-mandate constituency in the elections to the upper chamber of the parliament was only introduced by Electoral Law in 2011.During the political transformation in Poland, electoral law was frequently changed. The general principles, already adopted in 1991, were maintained in parliamentary elections (to the Sejm). The changes only affected the detailed solutions concerning how the votes were calculated as mandates, and the sizes of constituencies. The so-called elective thresholds, which were introduced in 1993, have been maintained. In practice, the result of the current system of parliamentary elections is that the parties that attract approximately 25% of the votes cast by all those authorized to vote, win over half the parliamentary mandates, thereby exercising power. Therefore, the claim that a democratic electoral system is based on the principle of majority rule seems doubtful here, as what we actually get entails the rule of the largest social group, or at least the one that has the most effective organization. Contrary to popular belief, the majority elections to the Senate do not change the above rule. A voter supporting a given candidate in these elections is mainly directed by the political group which supports this candidate. The electoral system to the Senate was finally formed in 1991 and only slightly amended in 2001. Asingle-mandate constituency in the elections to the upper chamber of the parliament was only introduced by Electoral Law in 2011

Ocena wartości prognostycznej wybranych cech klinicznych i objawów mammograficznych w raku piersi

Background: The aim of the work is to assess the probability of the breast cancer occurrence on the basis of analysis of the clinical and mammographical factors in women with unpalpable breast tumor. Material/Methods: In the period from the 1st February 1995 to the 31st August 2000, 163 surgical procedures for the removal of any lesions in the breasts were conducted, after being previously marked by localized needle, in women who earlier underwent mammography exam.Following data was taken into consideration: patients age, type of the breast structure; side of the breast, where the lesion was localized in the mammography exam; localized lesions depending on the quadrant; shape of the lesion; size of the lesion in millimeters; presence and the type of microcalcifications. Results/Conclusions: 1. The only one population factor, which can be distinguished as characteristic for the women suffering from the breast cancer impalpable in clinical testing, is the age of the patient, because the breast cancer in these women more frequently occurs after 53 years of age. 2. On the basis of our own material the following radiological symptoms characteristic for the breast cancer in mammography exam were stated: the breast cancer is more frequently found in the upper external quadrant; all lesions, which in mammography exam were identified as multifocal and radiologicaly suspected in histopathology exam turned out to be the cancer; pleomorphic microcalcifications are characteristic for the malignant lesions; external outline and the shape of the lesion are the features, which allow to differentiate malignant and benign lesions. 3. The analysis of the material indicates that the greatest probability of the breast cancer occurrence is in case of the four risk factors occurrence simultanosly, and the smallest in case of only one risk factor occurrence

Analysis Of Strength Criteria In The Design Of Products From Composite Materials

Технічний прогрес породжує безперервне розширення класу конструкційних матеріалів і вдосконалення їх властивостей. Поява нових матеріалів обумовлена природним прагненням підвищити ефективність конструкцій, що розробляються. Один з найбільш яскравих проявів прогресу в розвитку матеріалів, конструкцій і технології пов'язаний з розробкою і застосуванням композитних матеріалів. Композити мають ряд очевидних переваг перед іншими матеріалами, зокрема перед металами. Такими перевагами є висока питома міцність і жорсткість, висока корозійна стійкість, хороша здатність витримувати знакозмінні навантаження та інші. Слід зазначити ще одну, можливо, найголовнішу особливість композитів – це здатність до спрямованої зміни властивостей матеріалу відповідно до призначення конструкції і характеру її навантаження під час експлуатації. При впливі навантажень на конструкцію її міцність оцінюється за граничним станом матеріалів елементів конструкції. Коли в матеріалі виникає граничний стан, то відбувається його перехід в інший механічний стан – пружній, пластичний або стан руйнування. Дана стаття направлена на визначення оптимального критерію міцності композитного матеріалу, що враховує різну величину граничних напружень не тільки за різними напрямками осей координат, а й на розтягування і стиснення та подальшого обчислення максимального значення допустимого навантаження для одношарового однонаправленого композитного матеріалу. Під час дослідження було розглянуто основні властивості композитних матеріалів, методи виготовлення деталей із композитного матеріалу, розглянуто основні їх властивості та методи руйнування. Наведено характеристику критеріїв міцності композитних матеріалів, визначено найбільш придатний для обчислення максимального значення допустимого навантаження для одношарового однонаправленого композитного матеріалу. Запропонований підхід до оптимального проєктування елементів одношарових композитних конструкцій може становити інтерес для розробників чисельних і аналітичних методів вирішення завдань оптимального проєктування більш складних структур.Technological progress gives rise to the continuous expansion of the class of structural materials and the improvement of their properties. The appearance of new materials is due to the natural desire to increase the efficiency of the structures under development. One of the most striking manifestations of progress in the development of materials, structures and technology is associated with the development and application of composite materials. Composites have a number of obvious advantages over other materials, in particular over metals. Such advantages are high specific strength and rigidity, high corrosion resistance, good ability to withstand alternating loads and others. It should be noted another, perhaps the most important feature of composites - is the ability to change the properties of the material in accordance with the purpose of the structure and the nature of its load during operation. Under the influence of loads on the structure, its strength is estimated by the ultimate state of the materials of the structural elements. When a boundary state arises in a material, its transition to another mechanical state - elastic, plastic, or fracture state - occurs. This article aims to determine the optimal criterion for the strength of composite material that takes into account different values of ultimate stresses not only in different directions of the coordinate axes, but also to stretch and compress and further calculate the maximum allowable load for singlelayer unidirectional composite material During the research the main properties of composite materials, methods of manufacturing parts from composite material, their main properties and methods of destruction were considered. The characteristics of the strength criteria of composite materials are given, the most suitable for calculating the maximum value of the allowable load for a single-layer unidirectional composite material is determined. The proposed approach to the optimal design of elements of single-layer composite structures may be of interest to developers of numerous and analytical methods for solving problems of optimal design of more complex structures.Технический прогресс порождает непрерывное расширение класса конструкционных материалов и совершенствования их свойств. Появление новых материалов обусловлено естественным стремлением повысить эффективность разрабатываемых конструкций. Одно из самых ярких проявлений прогресса в развитии материалов, конструкций и технологии связано с разработкой и применением композитных материалов. Композиты имеют ряд очевидных преимуществ перед другими материалами, в частности перед металлами. Такими преимуществами являются высокая удельная прочность и жесткость, высокая коррозионная стойкость, хорошая способность выдерживать знакопеременные нагрузки и другие. Следует отметить еще одну, возможно, самую главную особенность композитов – способность к направленному изменению свойств материала в соответствии с назначением конструкции и характера ее нагрузки во время эксплуатации. При воздействии нагрузок на конструкцию ее прочность оценивается по предельному состоянию материалов элементов конструкции. Когда в материале возникает предельное состояние, то происходит его переход в другое механическое состояние – упругое, пластическое или состояние разрушения. Даны подходы определения оптимального критерия прочности композитного материала, учитывающего разную величину предельных напряжений не только по разным направлениям осей координат, но и на растяжение и сжатие и последующего вычисления максимального значения допустимой нагрузки для однослойного однонаправленного композитного материала. В ходе исследования были рассмотрены основные свойства композитных материалов, методы изготовления деталей из композитного материала, рассмотрены основные их свойства и методы разрушения. Приведена характеристика критериев прочности композитных материалов, определен наиболее подходящий для вычислений максимального значения допустимой нагрузки для однослойного однонаправленного композитного материала. Предложенный подход к оптимальному проектированию элементов однослойных композитных конструкций может представлять интерес для разработчиков численных и аналитических методов решения задач оптимального проектирования более сложных структур

Screening for prostate cancer: current knowledge and arguments confi rming it’s value

Poprawa ochrony zdrowia w ostatnich dekadach powoduje wydłużenie życia i starzenie się społeczeństwa, jednak pociąga za sobą rosnące koszty leczenia. Częstość oznaczania poziomu PSA wpływa na wzrost wskaźnika wykrywalności zachorowań na raka stercza (RS). Był on drugim co do częstości zachorowań i szóstą przyczyną zgonów z powodu nowotworów złośliwych na świecie w 2008 roku. Przed wprowadzeniem PSA dominowały rozpoznania zaawansowanych przypadków RS. W USA w 1988 roku RS miejscowo zaawansowanego (T3-4) rozpoznano u 55,5% badanych, zaś w 2005 tylko u 8,4%. W USA skrining PSA jest często stosowany, i w chwili rozpoznania stwierdza się tylko 4% rozsianych raków stercza. Omówione badania kliniczne i metaanalizy dostarczają argumentów zarówno za, jak i przeciw skriningowi. Podstawowy cel skriningu, czyli wzrost wykrywalności RS i spadek śmiertelności z tego powodu najczęściej został osiągnięty, jednak okupiony nadwykrywalnością, nadmiernym leczeniem oraz wzrostem powikłań i kosztów z tego powodu. Ocena indywidualnego ryzyka i nomogramy pozwalają na indywidualny skrining. AUA rekomenduje skrining u dobrze poinformowanych mężczyzn, rozpoczynający się po 40 rż. Zalecenia EAU na rok 2013 dotyczące skriningu w raku stercza rekomendują skrining powszechny u bezobjawowych mężczyzn w wieku 50–70 lat oraz skrining oportunistyczny, który obejmuje indywidualne postępowanie i jest inicjowany przez pacjenta i/lub lekarza. Punktami końcowymi obu typów skriningu jest redukcja śmiertelności z powodu raka stercza. Aktualnie wyzwanie dla skriningu RS to zmniejszenie nadwykrywalności i ograniczenie nadmiernego leczenia oraz wynikających z tego powikłań