Cellular Growth Kinetics Distinguish a Cyclophilin Inhibitor from an HSP90 Inhibitor as a Selective Inhibitor of Hepatitis C Virus

During antiviral drug discovery, it is critical to distinguish molecules that selectively interrupt viral replication from those that reduce virus replication by adversely affecting host cell viability. In this report we investigate the selectivity of inhibitors of the host chaperone proteins cyclophilin A (CypA) and heat-shock protein 90 (HSP90) which have each been reported to inhibit replication of hepatitis C virus (HCV). By comparing the toxicity of the HSP90 inhibitor, 17-(Allylamino)-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) to two known cytostatic compounds, colchicine and gemcitabine, we provide evidence that 17-AAG exerts its antiviral effects indirectly through slowing cell growth. In contrast, a cyclophilin inhibitor, cyclosporin A (CsA), exhibited selective antiviral activity without slowing cell proliferation. Furthermore, we observed that 17-AAG had little antiviral effect in a non-dividing cell-culture model of HCV replication, while CsA reduced HCV titer by more than two orders of magnitude in the same model. The assays we describe here are useful for discriminating selective antivirals from compounds that indirectly affect virus replication by reducing host cell viability or slowing cell growth

Localization of a Class III Myosin to Filopodia Tips in Transfected HeLa Cells Requires an Actin-binding Site in its Tail Domain

Bass Myo3A, a class III myosin, was expressed in HeLa cells as a GFP fusion in order to study its cellular localization. GFP-Myo3A localized to the cytoplasm and to the tips of F-actin bundles in filopodia, a localization that is consistent with the observed concentration toward the distal ends of F-actin bundles in photoreceptor cells. A mutation in the motor active site resulted in a loss of filopodia localization, suggesting that Myo3A motor activity is required for filopodial tip localization. Deletion analyses showed that the NH(2)-terminal kinase domain is not required but the CO(2)H-terminal 22 amino acids of the Myo3A tail are required for filopodial localization. Expression of this tail fragment alone produced fluorescence associated with F-actin throughout the cytoplasm and filopodia and a recombinant tail fragment bound to F-actin in vitro. An actin-binding motif was identified within this tail fragment, and a mutation within this motif abolished both filopodia localization by Myo3A and F-actin binding by the tail fragment alone. Calmodulin localized to filopodial tips when coexpressed with Myo3A but not in the absence of Myo3A, an observation consistent with the previous proposal that class III myosins bind calmodulin and thereby localize it in certain cell types

Effect of 17-AAG and CsA on cellular viability determined by cell count.

<p>Cell viability (measured by direct microscopic quantification of Hoechst-stained nuclei) was assessed as a function of dose in a three day assay for the following molecules: (A) the HCV polymerase inhibitor HCV-796, (B) the ribosomal inhibitor puromycin, (C) the cyclophilin inhibitor CsA, (D) the microtubule inhibitor colchicine, (E) the anti-metabolite gemcitabine, and (F) the HSP90 inhibitor 17-AAG. Colchicine dramatically altered cellular morphology, preventing an accurate cell count.</p

Effect of 17-AAG and CsA on cellular viability determined by measuring intracellular ATP concentration.

<p>Cell viability (measured by determining intracellular ATP levels) was assessed as a function of dose in a three day assay for the following molecules: (A) the HCV polymerase inhibitor HCV-796, (B) the ribosomal inhibitor puromycin, (C) the cyclophilin inhibitor CsA, (D) the microtubule inhibitor colchicine, (E) the anti-metabolite gemcitabine, and (F) the HSP90 inhibitor 17-AAG.</p

Effect of 17-AAG and CsA on HCV replication and viability determined by intracellular esterase activity.

<p>Antiviral activity (measured using the Renilla luciferase encoded by the HCV replicon; gray) and cell viability (measuring through the cleavage of calcein-AM by intracellular esterases; black) were assessed as a function of dose in a three day assay for the following molecules: (A) the HCV polymerase inhibitor HCV-796, (B) the ribosomal inhibitor puromycin, (C) the cyclophilin inhibitor CsA, (D) the microtubule inhibitor colchicine, (E) the anti-metabolite gemcitabine, and (F) the HSP90 inhibitor 17-AAG.</p

Visual assessment of replicon cell number and morphology after 1 µM compound treatment.

<p>Hoechst-stained nuclei were visualized after treatment for three days with the following molecules: (A) the HCV polymerase inhibitor HCV-796, (B) the ribosomal inhibitor puromycin, (C) the cyclophilin inhibitor CsA, (D) the microtubule inhibitor colchicine, (E) the anti-metabolite gemcitabine, and (F) the HSP90 inhibitor 17-AAG.</p

17-AAG slows cellular growth at its effective antiviral concentration.

<p>(A) Cellular growth was determined by measuring the percent confluence (by microscopic quantification) every 4 hours. HCV-796 (blue diamonds), CsA (pink squares), puromycin (black triangles), 17-AAG (green triangles). (B) Growth rate (% confluence per day) as a function of compound dose. HCV-796 (blue diamonds), CsA (pink squares), puromycin (black triangles), 17-AAG (green triangles). (C) Trypan-blue exclusion was used to determine the number of viable cells each day post drug addition. HCV-796 (blue diamonds), CsA (pink squares), puromycin (black triangles), 17-AAG (green triangles), or an equivalent volume of DMSO (grey circles).</p