Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes

The second plague pandemic, caused by Yersinia pestis, devastated Europe and the nearby regions between the 14th and 18th centuries AD. Here we analyse human remains from ten European archaeological sites spanning this period and reconstruct 34 ancient Y. pestis genomes. Our data support an initial entry of the bacterium through eastern Europe, the absence of genetic diversity during the Black Death, and low within-outbreak diversity thereafter. Analysis of post-Black Death genomes shows the diversification of a Y. pestis lineage into multiple genetically distinct clades that may have given rise to more than one disease reservoir in, or close to, Europe. In addition, we show the loss of a genomic region that includes virulence-related genes in strains associated with late stages of the pandemic. The deletion was also identified in genomes connected with the first plague pandemic (541–750 AD), suggesting a comparable evolutionary trajectory of Y. pestis during both events

Humilitas versus Revenants: The Interpretation of Prone Burials in Archaeological Research

Irregular burials show features that are deviating from the majority of burials in their contemporary geographical context. During medieval ages, prone burials are the most distinctive phenomenon of irregular burials, requiring a deliberate decision and fully consciously awareness of the burial party of placing a body in this position. Even though several studies have dealt with prone burials during prehistory, Roman and early medieval times, a comprehensive and quantitative analysis of deviant burials from the Middle Ages and modern times is still lacking for various geographical contexts, a fact that hampers any discussion of these burials on a larger scale. The aim of this study is: 1) to compile the available evidence from the German-speaking countries Switzerland, Germany and Austria after 1000 AD; 2) to evaluate which interpretations excavators and researchers attributed to those irregular burials and if there are patterns deriving from the geographical location or dating of the grave; 3) to analyze the sample for the following criteria: location of the burial (cemetery, church, settlement), sex, age, pathologies