Macroeconomic Policies to Increase Social Mobility and Growth in Bolivia

Poverty in Bolivia continues to be among the highest in Latin America despite decades of concerted national and international efforts to reduce it. Bolivia has meticulously followed the recommendations of the Washington consensus at the same time as external aid has been generous and foreign direct investment has boomed. Nevertheless, average productivity and incomes remain at the same low level as they were 50 years ago. This paper suggests that the failure of previous development policies is due to a lack of social mobility in the country. Without social mobility, there is little incentive for people to invest in human and physical capital, and without investment there cannot be productivity growth. In addition, the lack of social mobility implies an inefficient use of human capital, and it hinders the construction of efficient social mechanisms for redistribution and consumption smoothing over the life-cycle.Social Mobility, Development, Public Policy, Bolivia

Mission Quality Assurance Virtual Training and Certification Using the NASA Academy of Aerospace Quality

Many educational entities are involved in developing space bound payloads. These payloads are designed, constructed and tested under diverse conditions and by largely “amateur” teams. The Academy of Aerospace Quality (AAQ) is an open-access online resource that provides quality assurance training to students and faculty involved in payload projects. AAQ’s goal is to provide assistance in assuring that payloads are “successful” from a quality standpoint. The NASA AAQ is also being used by other, non-academic entities. This paper describes the resources and functions available on the AAQ website and how they can be used by project teams to support the training of their members on quality assurance topics

Role of anionic phospholipids in the adaptation of Bacillus subtilis to high salinity

The importance of the content of anionic phospholipids [cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG)] in the osmotic adaptation and in the membrane structure of Bacillus subtilis cultures was investigated. Insertion mutations in the three putative cardiolipin synthase genes (ywiE, ywnE and ywjE) were obtained. Only the ywnE mutation resulted in a complete deficiency in cardiolipin and thus corresponds to a true clsA gene. The osmotolerance of a clsA mutant was impaired: although at NaCl concentrations lower than 1.2 M the growth curves were similar to those of its wild-type control, at 1 .5 M NaCl (LBN medium) the lag period increased and the maximal optical density reached was lower. The membrane of the clsA mutant strain showed an increased PG content, at both exponential and stationary phase, but no trace of CL in either LB or LBN medium. As well as the deficiency in CL synthesis, the clsA mutant showed other differences in lipid and fatty acids content compared to the wild-type, suggesting a cross-regulation in membrane lipid pathways, crucial for the maintenance of membrane functionality and integrity. The biophysical characteristics of membranes and large unilamellar vesicles from the wild-type and clsA mutant strains were studied by Laurdan's steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. At physiological temperature, the clsA mutant showed a decreased lateral lipid packing in the protein-free vesicles and isolated membranes compared with the wild-type strain. Interestingly, the lateral lipid packing of the membranes of both the wild-type and clsA mutant strains increased when they were grown in LBN. In a conditional IPTG-controlled pgsA mutant, unable to synthesize PG and CL in the absence of IPTG, the osmoresistance of the cultures correlated with their content of anionic phospholipids. The transcriptional activity of the clsA and pgsA genes was similar and increased twofold upon entry to stationary phase or under osmotic upshift. Overall, these results support the involvement of the anionic phospholipids in the growth of B. subtilis in media containing elevated NaCl concentrations.Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de La Plat

Role of anionic phospholipids in the adaptation of Bacillus subtilis to high salinity

The importance of the content of anionic phospholipids [cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG)] in the osmotic adaptation and in the membrane structure of Bacillus subtilis cultures was investigated. Insertion mutations in the three putative cardiolipin synthase genes (ywiE, ywnE and ywjE) were obtained. Only the ywnE mutation resulted in a complete deficiency in cardiolipin and thus corresponds to a true clsA gene. The osmotolerance of a clsA mutant was impaired: although at NaCl concentrations lower than 1.2 M the growth curves were similar to those of its wild-type control, at 1 .5 M NaCl (LBN medium) the lag period increased and the maximal optical density reached was lower. The membrane of the clsA mutant strain showed an increased PG content, at both exponential and stationary phase, but no trace of CL in either LB or LBN medium. As well as the deficiency in CL synthesis, the clsA mutant showed other differences in lipid and fatty acids content compared to the wild-type, suggesting a cross-regulation in membrane lipid pathways, crucial for the maintenance of membrane functionality and integrity. The biophysical characteristics of membranes and large unilamellar vesicles from the wild-type and clsA mutant strains were studied by Laurdan's steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. At physiological temperature, the clsA mutant showed a decreased lateral lipid packing in the protein-free vesicles and isolated membranes compared with the wild-type strain. Interestingly, the lateral lipid packing of the membranes of both the wild-type and clsA mutant strains increased when they were grown in LBN. In a conditional IPTG-controlled pgsA mutant, unable to synthesize PG and CL in the absence of IPTG, the osmoresistance of the cultures correlated with their content of anionic phospholipids. The transcriptional activity of the clsA and pgsA genes was similar and increased twofold upon entry to stationary phase or under osmotic upshift. Overall, these results support the involvement of the anionic phospholipids in the growth of B. subtilis in media containing elevated NaCl concentrations.Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de La Plat

REVIZIJA DUGOTRAJNE MATERIJALNE I NEMATERIJALNE IMOVINE : Završni rad

Godišnji financijski izvještaji bi trebali prikazivati istinit, fer, pouzdan i nepristran pregled imovine, obveza, kapitala, dobiti ili gubitaka u određenoj poslovnoj godini. Budući da je računovodstveni regulatorni okvir do nekih granica fleksibilan, poduzetnici to često zloupotrebljavaju. Upravo mogućnost odabira određene računovodstvene politike, te samo utvrđivanje fer vrijednosti predstavljaju područja na koja utječu subjektivni stavovi menadžmenta te pripadaju području rizika. Glavni cilj revizije je provjera i ocjena financijskih izvještaja te upravo pojavom tog postupka povećava se razina povjerenja i sigurnosti u same financijske izvještaje. Ovim radom željela se skreniti pozornost na moguće netočne iskaze uslijed pogreške ili prijevare na poziciji dugotrajne materijalne i nematerijalne imovine te analiza istih. Analizom je utvrđeno da je većina hotela koji listaju na burzi u 2017. godini izvršila ispravak i prikazala svoj financijski položaj realno i objektivno, te je time zabilježeno manje modificiranih mišljenja koji za osnovu uzimaju greške na poziciji dugotrajne materijalne i nematerijalne imovine.The annual financial statements should show a true, fair, reliable and impartial review of assets, liabilities, capital, gains or losses in a given business year. Since the accounting regulatory framework is flexible to some limits, entrepreneurs often abuse them. Precisely the option of selecting a particular accounting policy, and just determining fair value, represent areas influenced by subjective managerial attitudes and belong to the risk area. The main purpose of the audit is to verify and evaluate the financial statements, and as a result of this process, the level of trust and confidence increases in the financial statements. This paper wanted to draw attention to possible incorrect statements as a result of errors or deception in the position of long-term material and non-material assets and their analysis. The analysis found that most of the hotels listed on the stock exchanges in 2017 made a correction and presented their financial position in a realistic and objective manner and thus recorded less modified opinions based on taking long-term tangible and intangible assets

Generating Stable Bioluminescent Cell Lines by Retroviral Transduction

This project focuses on improving tumor in vivo imaging techniques. It is difficult to accurately in vivo image orthotopic tumors using CT scans alone. Muriglo provides the capability to visualize in vivo bioluminescent signals emanating from intact tissues. We can coregister CT scans captured with the SARRP with luciferase signals captured with the Muriglo and locate tumor isocenters for image-guided radiation. We may then direct radiation to neoplastic tissue while also sparing the maximum amount of healthy tissue. To do this we must genetically engineer cells to express luciferase. We propose a protocol to use a retrovirus to create stable cell lines that express firefly luciferase for bioluminescence. We will also determine the optimal dosage of the G418 antibiotic for selection

Enhanced Photodegradation of Synthetic Dyes Mediated by Ag3PO4-Based Semiconductors under Visible Light Irradiation

[EN] Four silver phosphate-based materials were successfully synthesized, characterized, and evaluated, together with TiO2, in the photodegradation of synthetic dyes (tartrazine, Orange II, rhodamine, and Brilliant Blue FCF) under two irradiation sources centered at 420 and 450 nm. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images showed different topologies of the synthesized materials, whereas diffuse reflectance spectra demonstrated that they display absorption up to 500 nm. Degradation experiments were performed in parallel with the silver materials and TiO2. Upon irradiation centered at 420 nm, the abatement of the dyes was slightly more efficient in the case of TiO2-except for Orange II. Nevertheless, upon irradiation centered at 450 nm, TiO(2)demonstrated complete inefficiency and silver phosphates accomplished the complete abatement of the dyes-except for Brilliant Blue FCF. A careful analysis of the achieved degradation of dyes revealed that the main reaction mechanism involves electron transfer to the photogenerated holes in the valence band of silver photocatalysts, together with the direct excitation of dyes and the subsequent formation of reactive species. The performance of TiO(2)was only comparable at the shorter wavelength when hydroxyl radicals could be formed; however, it could not compete under irradiation at 450 nm since the formed superoxide anion is not as reactive as hydroxyl radicals.This research was funded by Spanish Government (Grant SEV-2016-0683), Generalitat Valenciana (Prometeo Program) and H2020/Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions under the AQUAlity project (Reference: 765860). The authors would like to acknowledge H2020/Marie Sk¿odowska-Curie Actions under the AQUAlity project (Reference: 765860). Consellería d¿Educació, Investigació, Cultura i Esport (PROMETEO/2017/075 and GRISOLÍAP/2017/005) is gratefully acknowledged.Pavanello, A.; Blasco-Brusola, A.; Johnston, PF.; Miranda Alonso, MÁ.; Marín García, ML. (2020). Enhanced Photodegradation of Synthetic Dyes Mediated by Ag3PO4-Based Semiconductors under Visible Light Irradiation. Catalysts. 10(7):1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10070774S117107Boczkaj, G., & Fernandes, A. (2017). Wastewater treatment by means of advanced oxidation processes at basic pH conditions: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 320, 608-633. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2017.03.084Miklos, D. B., Remy, C., Jekel, M., Linden, K. G., Drewes, J. E., & Hübner, U. (2018). Evaluation of advanced oxidation processes for water and wastewater treatment – A critical review. Water Research, 139, 118-131. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.042Gągol, M., Przyjazny, A., & Boczkaj, G. (2018). 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TiO2-assisted photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes in aqueous solution: kinetic and mechanistic investigations. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 49(1), 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2003.11.010Fujishima, A., Rao, T. N., & Tryk, D. A. (2000). Titanium dioxide photocatalysis. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 1(1), 1-21. doi:10.1016/s1389-5567(00)00002-2Gligorovski, S., Strekowski, R., Barbati, S., & Vione, D. (2015). Environmental Implications of Hydroxyl Radicals (•OH). Chemical Reviews, 115(24), 13051-13092. doi:10.1021/cr500310bMills, A., & Le Hunte, S. (1997). An overview of semiconductor photocatalysis. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 108(1), 1-35. doi:10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00118-4Han, F., Kambala, V. S. R., Srinivasan, M., Rajarathnam, D., & Naidu, R. (2009). Tailored titanium dioxide photocatalysts for the degradation of organic dyes in wastewater treatment: A review. Applied Catalysis A: General, 359(1-2), 25-40. doi:10.1016/j.apcata.2009.02.043Rauf, M. A., Meetani, M. A., & Hisaindee, S. (2011). An overview on the photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes in the presence of TiO2 doped with selective transition metals. Desalination, 276(1-3), 13-27. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.03.071Ismael, M. (2019). Highly effective ruthenium-doped TiO2nanoparticles photocatalyst for visible-light-driven photocatalytic hydrogen production. New Journal of Chemistry, 43(24), 9596-9605. doi:10.1039/c9nj02226kIsmael, M. (2020). Enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen production and degradation of organic pollutants from Fe (III) doped TiO2 nanoparticles. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(2), 103676. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2020.103676Rajeshwar, K., Osugi, M. E., Chanmanee, W., Chenthamarakshan, C. R., Zanoni, M. V. B., Kajitvichyanukul, P., & Krishnan-Ayer, R. (2008). Heterogeneous photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes in air and aqueous media. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 9(4), 171-192. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2008.09.001Ismael, M., Elhaddad, E., Taffa, D., & Wark, M. (2017). Synthesis of Phase Pure Hexagonal YFeO3 Perovskite as Efficient Visible Light Active Photocatalyst. Catalysts, 7(11), 326. doi:10.3390/catal7110326Ismael, M., & Wark, M. (2019). Perovskite-type LaFeO3: Photoelectrochemical Properties and Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants Under Visible Light Irradiation. Catalysts, 9(4), 342. doi:10.3390/catal9040342Yi, Z., Ye, J., Kikugawa, N., Kako, T., Ouyang, S., Stuart-Williams, H., … Withers, R. L. (2010). An orthophosphate semiconductor with photooxidation properties under visible-light irradiation. Nature Materials, 9(7), 559-564. doi:10.1038/nmat2780Bi, Y., Ouyang, S., Umezawa, N., Cao, J., & Ye, J. (2011). Facet Effect of Single-Crystalline Ag3PO4 Sub-microcrystals on Photocatalytic Properties. 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Journal of Hazardous Materials, 217-218, 107-115. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.03.002Ge, M., Zhu, N., Zhao, Y., Li, J., & Liu, L. (2012). Sunlight-Assisted Degradation of Dye Pollutants in Ag3PO4 Suspension. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 51(14), 5167-5173. doi:10.1021/ie202864nGe, M. (2014). Photodegradation of rhodamine B and methyl orange by Ag3PO4 catalyst under visible light irradiation. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 35(8), 1410-1417. doi:10.1016/s1872-2067(14)60079-6Qamar, M., Elsayed, R. B., Alhooshani, K. R., Ahmed, M. I., & Bahnemann, D. W. (2015). Chemoselective and highly efficient conversion of aromatic alcohols into aldehydes photo-catalyzed by Ag3PO4 in aqueous suspension under simulated sunlight. Catalysis Communications, 58, 34-39. doi:10.1016/j.catcom.2014.08.025Taheri, M. E., Petala, A., Frontistis, Z., Mantzavinos, D., & Kondarides, D. I. (2017). Fast photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol A by Ag 3 PO 4 /TiO 2 composites under solar radiation. Catalysis Today, 280, 99-107. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2016.05.047Li, X., Xu, P., Chen, M., Zeng, G., Wang, D., Chen, F., … Tan, X. (2019). Application of silver phosphate-based photocatalysts: Barriers and solutions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 366, 339-357. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.083Zwara, J., Grabowska, E., Klimczuk, T., Lisowski, W., & Zaleska-Medynska, A. (2018). Shape-dependent enhanced photocatalytic effect under visible light of Ag3PO4 particles. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 367, 240-252. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2018.08.006Petala, A., Spyrou, D., Frontistis, Z., Mantzavinos, D., & Kondarides, D. I. (2019). Immobilized Ag3PO4 photocatalyst for micro-pollutants removal in a continuous flow annular photoreactor. Catalysis Today, 328, 223-229. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2018.10.062Cruz-Filho, J. F., Costa, T. M. S., Lima, M. S., Silva, L. J., Santos, R. S., Cavalcante, L. S., … Luz, G. E. (2019). Effect of different synthesis methods on the morphology, optical behavior, and superior photocatalytic performances of Ag3PO4 sub-microcrystals using white-light-emitting diodes. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 377, 14-25. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2019.03.031Zhu, C., Li, Y., Yang, Y., Chen, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, P., & Feng, W. (2020). Influence of operational parameters on photocatalytic decolorization of a cationic azo dye under visible-light in aqueous Ag3PO4. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 115, 107850. doi:10.1016/j.inoche.2020.107850Raza, N., Raza, W., Gul, H., Azam, M., Lee, J., Vikrant, K., & Kim, K.-H. (2020). Solar-light-active silver phosphate/titanium dioxide/silica heterostructures for photocatalytic removal of organic dye. Journal of Cleaner Production, 254, 120031. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120031Tab, A., Bellal, B., Belabed, C., Dahmane, M., & Trari, M. (2020). Visible light assisted photocatalytic degradation and mineralization of Rhodamine B in aqueous solution by Ag3PO4. Optik, 214, 164858. doi:10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.164858Hamrouni, A., Azzouzi, H., Rayes, A., Palmisano, L., Ceccato, R., & Parrino, F. (2020). Enhanced Solar Light Photocatalytic Activity of Ag Doped TiO2–Ag3PO4 Composites. Nanomaterials, 10(4), 795. doi:10.3390/nano10040795Rawal, S. B., Sung, S. D., & Lee, W. I. (2012). Novel Ag3PO4/TiO2 composites for efficient decomposition of gaseous 2-propanol under visible-light irradiation. Catalysis Communications, 17, 131-135. doi:10.1016/j.catcom.2011.10.034Ma, J., Zou, J., Li, L., Yao, C., Zhang, T., & Li, D. (2013). Synthesis and characterization of Ag3PO4 immobilized in bentonite for the sunlight-driven degradation of Orange II. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 134-135, 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.12.032Trasatti, S. (1986). The absolute electrode potential: an explanatory note (Recommendations 1986). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 58(7), 955-966. doi:10.1351/pac198658070955Ahmad, I., Murtaza, S., & Ahmed, S. (2015). Electrochemical and photovoltaic study of sunset yellow and tartrazine dyes. Monatshefte für Chemie - Chemical Monthly, 146(10), 1631-1640. doi:10.1007/s00706-015-1425-8Ghoreishi, S. M., Behpour, M., & Golestaneh, M. (2011). Simultaneous voltammetric determination of Brilliant Blue and Tartrazine in real samples at the surface of a multi-walled carbon nanotube paste electrode. Analytical Methods, 3(12), 2842. doi:10.1039/c1ay05327bTaniguchi, M., & Lindsey, J. S. (2018). Database of Absorption and Fluorescence Spectra of >300 Common Compounds for use in Photochem CAD. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 94(2), 290-327. doi:10.1111/php.12860Vinodgopal, K., Wynkoop, D. E., & Kamat, P. V. (1996). Environmental Photochemistry on Semiconductor Surfaces:  Photosensitized Degradation of a Textile Azo Dye, Acid Orange 7, on TiO2 Particles Using Visible Light. 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Journal of Materials Chemistry, 22(9), 4050. doi:10.1039/c2jm14410gMolla, M. A. I., Tateishi, I., Furukawa, M., Katsumata, H., Suzuki, T., & Kaneco, S. (2017). Photocatalytic Decolorization of Dye with Self-Dye-Sensitization under Fluorescent Light Irradiation. ChemEngineering, 1(2), 8. doi:10.3390/chemengineering1020008Baiocchi, C., Brussino, M. C., Pramauro, E., Prevot, A. B., Palmisano, L., & Marcı̀, G. (2002). Characterization of methyl orange and its photocatalytic degradation products by HPLC/UV–VIS diode array and atmospheric pressure ionization quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometry. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry, 214(2), 247-256. doi:10.1016/s1387-3806(01)00590-5Liu, R., Hu, P., & Chen, S. (2012). Photocatalytic activity of Ag3PO4 nanoparticle/TiO2 nanobelt heterostructures. Applied Surface Science, 258(24), 9805-9809. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.06.033Wang, P., Li, Y., Liu, Z., Chen, J., Wu, Y., Guo, M., & Na, P. (2017). In-situ deposition of Ag3PO4 on TiO2 nanosheets dominated by (001) facets for enhanced photocatalytic activities and recyclability. Ceramics International, 43(15), 11588-11595. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.05.178Kim, W. J., Pradhan, D., Min, B.-K., & Sohn, Y. (2014). Adsorption/photocatalytic activity and fundamental natures of BiOCl and BiOClxI1−x prepared in water and ethylene glycol environments, and Ag and Au-doping effects. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 147, 711-725. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.10.008Cao, J., Luo, B., Lin, H., & Chen, S. (2011). Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic activity of AgBr/H2WO4 composite photocatalyst. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 344(1-2), 138-144. doi:10.1016/j.molcata.2011.05.012Ishibashi, K., Fujishima, A., Watanabe, T., & Hashimoto, K. (2000). Detection of active oxidative species in TiO2 photocatalysis using the fluorescence technique. Electrochemistry Communications, 2(3), 207-210. doi:10.1016/s1388-2481(00)00006-0Xiao, Q., Si, Z., Zhang, J., Xiao, C., & Tan, X. (2008). Photoinduced hydroxyl radical and photocatalytic activity of samarium-doped TiO2 nanocrystalline. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 150(1), 62-67. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.04.045Hoffmann, M. R., Martin, S. T., Choi, W., & Bahnemann, D. W. (1995). Environmental Applications of Semiconductor Photocatalysis. Chemical Reviews, 95(1), 69-96. doi:10.1021/cr00033a004Reszka, K., & Chignell, C. F. (1983). SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES OF CUTANEOUS PHOTOSENSITIZING AGENTS—IV. THE PHOTOLYSIS OF BENOXAPROFEN, AN ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUG WITH PHOTOTOXIC PROPERTIES. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 38(3), 281-291. doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1983.tb02673.xBurns, J. M., Cooper, W. J., Ferry, J. L., King, D. W., DiMento, B. P., McNeill, K., … Waite, T. D. (2012). Methods for reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection in aqueous environments. Aquatic Sciences, 74(4), 683-734. doi:10.1007/s00027-012-0251-xZhang, D., Yan, S., & Song, W. (2014). Photochemically Induced Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) from Effluent Organic Matter. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(21), 12645-12653. doi:10.1021/es5028663Hayyan, M., Hashim, M. A., & AlNashef, I. M. (2016). Superoxide Ion: Generation and Chemical Implications. Chemical Reviews, 116(5), 3029-3085. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00407D., N., Kondamareddy, K. K., Bin, H., Lu, D., Kumar, P., Dwivedi, R. K., … Fu, D. (2018). Enhanced visible light photodegradation activity of RhB/MB from aqueous solution using nanosized novel Fe-Cd co-modified ZnO. Scientific Reports, 8(1). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29025-1Bi, Y., Ouyang, S., Cao, J., & Ye, J. (2011). Facile synthesis of rhombic dodecahedral AgX/Ag3PO4 (X = Cl, Br, I) heterocrystals with enhanced photocatalytic properties and stabilities. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 13(21), 10071. doi:10.1039/c1cp20488

Effect of Poly(Oxanorbonene)- and Poly(Methacrylate)-Based Polyzwitterionic Surface Coatings on Cell Adhesion and Gene Expression of Human Keratinocytes

Polyzwitterions are generally known for their anti-adhesive properties, including resistance to protein and cell adhesion, and overall high bio-inertness. Yet there are a few polyzwitterions to which mammalian cells do adhere. To understand the structural features of this behavior, a panel of polyzwitterions with different functional groups and overall degrees of hydrophobicity is analyzed here, and their physical and biological properties are correlated to these structural differences. Cell adhesion is focused on, which is the basic requirement for cell viability, proliferation, and growth. With the here presented polyzwitterion panel, three different types of cell-surface interactions are observed: adhesion, slight attachment, and cell repellency. Using immunofluorescence methods, it is found that human keratinocytes (HaCaT) form focal adhesions on the cell-adhesive polyzwitterions, but not on the sample that has only slight cell attachment. Gene expression analysis indicates that HaCaT cells cultivated in the presence of a non-adhesive polyzwitterion have up-regulated inflammatory and apoptosis-related cell signaling pathways, while the gene expression of HaCaT cells grown on a cell-adhesive polyzwitterion does not differ from the gene expression of the growth control, and thus can be defined as fully cell-compatible