L'application de la notion d'entreprise entre le Code de commerce français et le Code civil du Québec

"Mémoire présenté à la faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maîtrise en droit des affaires LLM"Ce mémoire analyse l'introduction et l'application de la notion d'entreprise dans le Code de commerce français et dans le Code civil du Québec. En adoptant cette notion, les deux législateurs avaient pour objet principal de pallier à la désuétude de principes traditionnels du droit commercial et d'ajuster leurs législations aux nouvelles mutations économiques et sociales. Ainsi, est évoquée présentement, en France comme au Québec, la notion d'entreprise. Cependant, force est de constater que le rôle donné à cette notion de même que le contexte dans lequel elle s'applique ne sont pas les mêmes dans les deux législations. Dans le C.c.Q., la notion d'entreprise a remplacé définitivement la notion de commerce afin d'élargir le champ d'application des règles dérogatoires propres au monde des affaires. Quant au législateur français, bien qu'il ait introduit l'entreprise dans la plupart des règles des affaires, il a opté pour le maintien du droit commercial. Dès lors, l'accent sera mis sur la méthode poursuivie par chacune des deux législations quant à l'adoption et l'application de la notion d'entreprise ainsi que sur les difficultés et les avantages inhérents à chaque démarche. La conclusion tirée de cette étude montre que les deux expériences sont aux antipodes l'une de l'autre en ce qui concerne l'état actuel de droit de chaque législation suite à l'adoption de la notion d'entreprise. En gardant la notion de commerce, le législateur français profite toujours d'une stabilité juridique certaine dérivant notamment d'un bagage doctrinal et jurisprudentiel notable, lié au droit commercial. Toutefois, cette stabilité est faite au détriment d'une structure juridique cohérente et logique. Par contre, le C.c.Q. repose sur des règles juridiques homogènes et rationnelles dignes d'un système juridique évolué. Cependant, il essuie plusieurs difficultés quant à l'interprétation et l'application de la nouvelle notion, étant donné la nouveauté de la réforme.An analysis of the implementation of the notion of enterprise in the French Commercial Code and the Civil Code of Quebec is undertaken in this study. By adopting the concept of enterprise, both legislators wanted to overcome the obsolescence of the traditional principles of the commercial law and adjust their legislations to the modem economic and social mutations. Thus, this concept is currently referred to in France and in Quebec. However, it would be a flaw to accept the adoption and implementation of the concept of enterprise as the same in France and in Quebec. Indeed, in the Civil Code of Quebec, the enterprise concept replaced completely the concept of commerce to widen the realm of application of the rules applied in the business world. On the other hand, despite the adoption of this concept on most of the business regulations, the French legislator chose to preserve the commercial law. The emphasis in this thesis is to contrast the two paths taken by France and Quebec to adopt and implement the concept of enterprise and to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each path. This study concludes that the two experiences are in contradiction with regard to the current state of law in France and in Quebec after adopting the notion of enterprise. By safeguarding the notion of commerce, the French legislator still profiting from stable juridical system derived essentially from the commercial law's doctrine and jurisprudence. However, this stability was maintained at the cost of a logical and coherent legal structure. On the other hand, the Civil Code of Quebec is based on rational and homogeneous rules that correspond to a modern legal system. Nevertheless, given the novelty of the legal reforms, many challenges arise when it cornes to the application and interpretation of the new concept of enterprise

Caratterizzazione mineralogica e strutturale di malte e intonaci del sito archeologico di Barsinia, Giordania settentrionale

Summary Twelve mortar and plaster samples excavated in the archaeological site of Barsinia were mineralogically and petrographically examined by XRay Diffraction (XRD) and Stereo and Polarized Light Microscopy, while the total carbonate content was measured using a DietrichFruhling Calcimeter. The physical properties of the samples, such as water uptake under atmospheric pressure and under vacuum, together with density and porosity, were measured. Only twelve samples were available for the purposes of this study: 8 plaster samples and 4 mortar samples. Eleven samples out of the total number of samples were mortars or plasters with lime binder and silica aggregate; calcite and quartz were identified in all of these samples. In most of the samples one or more pozzolanic components were detected; a hydraulic effect therefore exists in practically most of the studied mortars. Excluding the plasters taken from waterbearing constructions such as cisterns, and the mortar sample from the compact floor, the binder content is high; in general, the overall porosity of the studied samples is high. Porosity and petrographic investigation results suggest that the burning temperature of the limestone was low and/or the duration of the combustion was short; such preparation conditions produce a desirable quicklime. Owing to the significant compositional and textural differences between the samples that were reported, there is consequently no suitable general mortar that can be adopted for the restoration of the whole site. Riassunto Dodici campioni di malta e intonaco, prelevati dal sito archeologico di Bar sinia, sono stati esaminati mineralogicamente e petrograficamente utilizzando l’analisi di diffrazione a raggi X (XRD) e microscopi stereoscopici e a luce pola rizzata, mentre il contenuto totale di carbonati è stata misurato utilizzando il cal cimetro DietrichFruhling. Sono state misurate le proprietà fisiche dei campioni, come l’assorbimento di acqua a pressione atmosferica e sotto vuoto, insieme alla densità e alla porosità. Per le finalità di questo studio erano disponibili solo dodici campioni: 8 campioni di intonaco e 4 campioni di malta. Undici campioni rispetto al numero totale erano malte o intonaci con legante di calce e aggregati di silice, e in tutti questi campioni potrebbero essere identificati calcite e quar zo. Nella maggior parte dei campioni sono stati rilevati uno o più componenti pozzolanici e, dunque, l’effetto idraulico si verifica praticamente nella maggior parte delle malte studiate. Escludendo gli intonaci prelevati da costruzioni ac quifere quali cisterne e il campione di malta dal pavimento compatto, il conte nuto di legante è alto. In generale, la porosità dei campioni studiati è alta. La porosità e i risultati dell’indagine petrografica suggeriscono che la combustione del calcare è avvenuta a temperature basse e/o la durata di combustione è stata breve; tali condizioni di preparazione producono la calce viva. Sarebbero state riportate significative differenze compositive e tessutali tra i campioni e, pertanto, non può essere impiegata nessuna generale malta di composizione per il restauro dell’intero sito. Résumé Douze échantillons de mortier et d’enduit prélevés du site archéologique de Barsinia ont été analysés d’un point de vue minéralogique et pétrographique par analyse par diffraction de rayons X (DRX) et au microscope stéréoscopique et à la lumière polarisée. La teneur totale en carbonates a été mesurée par le cal cimètre de DietrichFruhling. Les propriétés physiques des échantillons ont été mesurées, par ex. l’eau absorbée à la pression atmosphérique et sous vide, la densité et la porosité. Pour cette étude, nous n’avions que douze échantillons: 8 échantillons d’enduit et 4 de mortier. Onze échantillons sur douze étaient des mortiers ou des enduits avec un liant de chaux et des agrégats de silice. La calcite et le quartz pourraient être identifiés dans la totalité des échantillons. Dans la plupart des échantillons, on a détecté un ou plusieurs composants de type pouzzolanes. Dès lors, l’effet hydraulique se vérifie pratiquement dans la plupart des mortiers étudiés. La teneur en liant est élevée. Font exception les enduits prélevés de constructions aquifères (par ex., citernes) et l’échantillon de mortier prélevé du sol compact. En général, les échantillons étudiés étaient très poreux. La porosité et les résultats de l’étude pétrographique font supposer une combustion courte du calcaire, et/ou une combustion à basse température, conditions de préparation qui sont celles de la chaux vive. Du fait des différences importantes de composition et de texture qui auraient été constatées entre les échantillons, aucun mortier de composition standard ne peut être utilisé pour restaurer l’ensemble du site. Zusammenfassung Zwölf Mörtel und Putzproben aus der archäologischen Ausgrabungsstätte von Barsinia wurden mineralogischen und petrografischen Untersuchungen mittels Röntgenbeugung (XRD) und Einsatz von StereoPolarisationsmikroskopen un terzogen, während der GesamtKarbonatgehalt mithilfe eines Calcimeters nach DietrichFrühling ermittelt wurde. Gemessen wurden die physikalischen Eigen schaften der Proben, wie Wasserabsorption bei Atmosphärendruck und unter Va kuum, sowie Dichte und Porosität. Für diese Studie standen nur zwölf Proben zur Verfügung: 8 Putz und 4 Mörtelproben. Von allen vorhandenen Proben bestan den elf aus Mörtel oder Putz mit Kalkbinder und Kieselerde als Zuschlagstoff und in allen Proben könnten Calcit und Quarz nachgewiesen werden. In den meisten Proben wurden eine oder mehrere PuzzolanKomponenten ermittelt, d. h. die Bindung von Wasser findet praktisch in den meisten der untersuchten Mörtel statt. Von den aus Wassergewerken wie beispielsweise Zisternen stammenden Putzproben und den Mörtelproben aus dem kompakten Bodenbelag abgesehen, ist der Bindemittelgehalt hoch. Generell weisen die untersuchten Proben hohe Porosität auf. Die Porosität und die Ergebnisse der petrografischen Analyse las sen darauf schließen, dass die Verbrennung des Kalks bei niedrigen Temperatu ren stattgefunden und/oder dass diese Verbrennung nur kurze Zeit gedauert hat. Unter derartigen Herstellungsbedingungen entsteht Branntkalk. Zwischen den Proben wurden bedeutende Unterschiede in der Zusammensetzung und Gewe bestruktur festgestellt, daher ist die Verwendung eines Mörtels mit allgemein ge eigneter Zusam mensetzung für die Restaurierung des gesamten Standorts nicht möglich. Resumen Doce muestras de mortero y enlucido, tomadas en el yacimiento arqueológico de Barsinia, han sido examinadas desde el punto de vista mineralógico y petrográfico mediante análisis de difracción de rayos X (XRD) y microscopios estereoscópicos y de luz polarizada, mientras que el contenido total de carbonatos se ha medido empleando el calcímetro DietrichFruhling. Se han medido las propiedades físicas de las muestras, como la absorción de agua a presión atmosférica y al vacío, así como también la densidad y la porosidad. Para los fines de este estudio solo se disponía de doce muestras: ocho de enlucido y cuatro de mortero. Del total de las muestras, once estaban constituidas por morteros o enlucidos con aglutinante de cal y agregados de sílice. En todas ellas se han detectado calcita y cuarzo. En la mayoría se ha hallado por lo menos un componente puzolánico, por lo que puede afirmarse que en gran parte de los morteros estudiados se da el efecto hidráulico. A excepción de los enlucidos tomados en construcciones acuíferas, como cister nas, y de la muestra de mortero del suelo compacto, el contenido de aglutinante es elevado. En general, la porosidad de las muestras estudiadas es alta. La porosi dad y los resultados del estudio petrográfico sugieren que la combustión de caliza fue de breve duración y/o tuvo lugar a bajas temperaturas; dichas condiciones de preparación producen cal viva. Como se han encontrado diferencias significativas en la composición y los tejidos de las muestras, no se puede emplear ningún mor tero de composición de tipo genérico para restaurar la totalidad del yacimiento. 简介 针对十二份取自 Barsinia 建筑的泥浆和灰泥样本，均使用X射线衍射、立体显微镜和 偏光显微镜进行矿物学和岩相学分析测试，总含碳量使用 DietrichFruhling 碳酸计进行 测量。针对样本的物理特性，进行了如压力环境和真空下吸水性，材料密度和多孔性 测试。为达到实验目的仅准备 12 份样本： 8 份灰泥（ Plaster ）样本， 4 份泥浆（ Mor tar ）样本。总样本中的 11 份灰泥或泥浆样本混有石灰粘合剂和氧化硅集合体，每份样 本中均有方解石和石英成分存在。 在大部分样本中存在一种或多种白榴火山灰成分，因此在大部分泥浆研究中液压作 用均被实际证实。排除从含水结构如蓄水池中获得的灰泥样本和紧凑地板结构中获得 的泥浆样本，其他样本中均有高含量的粘合剂成分。多孔性和岩相调查提醒石灰常温 燃烧性很低，并且/或着燃烧时间持续很短；这样的条件下产生生石灰。样品间组成和 组织成分有很明显差别，因此在进行整个建筑群修复时，不可以仅使用同一种泥浆。 Резюме Двенадцать образцов раствора и штукатурки, отобранных в археологиче ских раскопках в Барсинии, стали предметом минералографического и петрог рафического исследования, используя рентгенофазовый анализ и стереоско пические и поляризационные микроскопы, в то время как общее содержание карбонатов было измерено при помощи кальциметра ДитрихаФрюлинга. Были измерены такие физические характеристики образцов, как поглощение воды при атмосферном давлении и в вакууме, а также их плотность и пористость. Для проведения этого исследования в распоряжении имелось только двенад цать образцов: 8 образцов штукатурки и 4 образца раствора. Из общего коли чества образцов одиннадцать представляли собой растворы или штукатурки с известковым вяжущим и кремнеземными агрегатами, и во всех этих образцах можно бы обнаружить кальцит и кварц. В большинстве образцов были найде ны один или несколько пуццолановых компонентов, поэтому, гидравлический эффект возникает практически в большинстве исследуемых растворов. За исключением штукатурок, отобранных в таких водоносных сооружениях, как цистерны, и образца раствора из плотного пола, наблюдается высокое содер жание вяжущего вещества. В общем плане пористость исследуемых образцов является высокой. Пористость и заключения петрографического исследования наводят на мысль о том, что известняк горел при низкой температуре и/или в течение непродолжительного времени. При таких условиях подготовки получа ется негашеная известь. Поскольку были обнаружены значительные различия в составе и в текстуре разных образцов, невозможно применение одного общего раствора для реставрации всего объекта.Summary Twelve mortar and plaster samples excavated in the archaeological site of Barsinia were mineralogically and petrographically examined by XRay Diffraction (XRD) and Stereo and Polarized Light Microscopy, while the total carbonate content was measured using a DietrichFruhling Calcimeter. The physical properties of the samples, such as water uptake under atmospheric pressure and under vacuum, together with density and porosity, were measured. Only twelve samples were available for the purposes of this study: 8 plaster samples and 4 mortar samples. Eleven samples out of the total number of samples were mortars or plasters with lime binder and silica aggregate; calcite and quartz were identified in all of these samples. In most of the samples one or more pozzolanic components were detected; a hydraulic effect therefore exists in practically most of the studied mortars. Excluding the plasters taken from waterbearing constructions such as cisterns, and the mortar sample from the compact floor, the binder content is high; in general, the overall porosity of the studied samples is high. Porosity and petrographic investigation results suggest that the burning temperature of the limestone was low and/or the duration of the combustion was short; such preparation conditions produce a desirable quicklime. Owing to the significant compositional and textural differences between the samples that were reported, there is consequently no suitable general mortar that can be adopted for the restoration of the whole site.Riassunto Dodici campioni di malta e intonaco, prelevati dal sito archeologico di Bar sinia, sono stati esaminati mineralogicamente e petrograficamente utilizzando l’analisi di diffrazione a raggi X (XRD) e microscopi stereoscopici e a luce pola rizzata, mentre il contenuto totale di carbonati è stata misurato utilizzando il cal cimetro DietrichFruhling. Sono state misurate le proprietà fisiche dei campioni, come l’assorbimento di acqua a pressione atmosferica e sotto vuoto, insieme alla densità e alla porosità. Per le finalità di questo studio erano disponibili solo dodici campioni: 8 campioni di intonaco e 4 campioni di malta. Undici campioni rispetto al numero totale erano malte o intonaci con legante di calce e aggregati di silice, e in tutti questi campioni potrebbero essere identificati calcite e quar zo. Nella maggior parte dei campioni sono stati rilevati uno o più componenti pozzolanici e, dunque, l’effetto idraulico si verifica praticamente nella maggior parte delle malte studiate. Escludendo gli intonaci prelevati da costruzioni ac quifere quali cisterne e il campione di malta dal pavimento compatto, il conte nuto di legante è alto. In generale, la porosità dei campioni studiati è alta. La porosità e i risultati dell’indagine petrografica suggeriscono che la combustione del calcare è avvenuta a temperature basse e/o la durata di combustione è stata breve; tali condizioni di preparazione producono la calce viva. Sarebbero state riportate significative differenze compositive e tessutali tra i campioni e, pertanto, non può essere impiegata nessuna generale malta di composizione per il restauro dell’intero sito.Résumé Douze échantillons de mortier et d’enduit prélevés du site archéologique de Barsinia ont été analysés d’un point de vue minéralogique et pétrographique par analyse par diffraction de rayons X (DRX) et au microscope stéréoscopique et à la lumière polarisée. La teneur totale en carbonates a été mesurée par le cal cimètre de DietrichFruhling. Les propriétés physiques des échantillons ont été mesurées, par ex. l’eau absorbée à la pression atmosphérique et sous vide, la densité et la porosité. Pour cette étude, nous n’avions que douze échantillons: 8 échantillons d’enduit et 4 de mortier. Onze échantillons sur douze étaient des mortiers ou des enduits avec un liant de chaux et des agrégats de silice. La calcite et le quartz pourraient être identifiés dans la totalité des échantillons. Dans la plupart des échantillons, on a détecté un ou plusieurs composants de type pouzzolanes. Dès lors, l’effet hydraulique se vérifie pratiquement dans la plupart des mortiers étudiés. La teneur en liant est élevée. Font exception les enduits prélevés de constructions aquifères (par ex., citernes) et l’échantillon de mortier prélevé du sol compact. En général, les échantillons étudiés étaient très poreux. La porosité et les résultats de l’étude pétrographique font supposer une combustion courte du calcaire, et/ou une combustion à basse température, conditions de préparation qui sont celles de la chaux vive. Du fait des différences importantes de composition et de texture qui auraient été constatées entre les échantillons, aucun mortier de composition standard ne peut être utilisé pour restaurer l’ensemble du site.Zusammenfassung Zwölf Mörtel und Putzproben aus der archäologischen Ausgrabungsstätte von Barsinia wurden mineralogischen und petrografischen Untersuchungen mittels Röntgenbeugung (XRD) und Einsatz von StereoPolarisationsmikroskopen un terzogen, während der GesamtKarbonatgehalt mithilfe eines Calcimeters nach DietrichFrühling ermittelt wurde. Gemessen wurden die physikalischen Eigen schaften der Proben, wie Wasserabsorption bei Atmosphärendruck und unter Va kuum, sowie Dichte und Porosität. Für diese Studie standen nur zwölf Proben zur Verfügung: 8 Putz und 4 Mörtelproben. Von allen vorhandenen Proben bestan den elf aus Mörtel oder Putz mit Kalkbinder und Kieselerde als Zuschlagstoff und in allen Proben könnten Calcit und Quarz nachgewiesen werden. In den meisten Proben wurden eine oder mehrere PuzzolanKomponenten ermittelt, d. h. die Bindung von Wasser findet praktisch in den meisten der untersuchten Mörtel statt. Von den aus Wassergewerken wie beispielsweise Zisternen stammenden Putzproben und den Mörtelproben aus dem kompakten Bodenbelag abgesehen, ist der Bindemittelgehalt hoch. Generell weisen die untersuchten Proben hohe Porosität auf. Die Porosität und die Ergebnisse der petrografischen Analyse las sen darauf schließen, dass die Verbrennung des Kalks bei niedrigen Temperatu ren stattgefunden und/oder dass diese Verbrennung nur kurze Zeit gedauert hat. Unter derartigen Herstellungsbedingungen entsteht Branntkalk. Zwischen den Proben wurden bedeutende Unterschiede in der Zusammensetzung und Gewe bestruktur festgestellt, daher ist die Verwendung eines Mörtels mit allgemein ge eigneter Zusam mensetzung für die Restaurierung des gesamten Standorts nicht möglich.Resumen Doce muestras de mortero y enlucido, tomadas en el yacimiento arqueológico de Barsinia, han sido examinadas desde el punto de vista mineralógico y petrográfico mediante análisis de difracción de rayos X (XRD) y microscopios estereoscópicos y de luz polarizada, mientras que el contenido total de carbonatos se ha medido empleando el calcímetro DietrichFruhling. Se han medido las propiedades físicas de las muestras, como la absorción de agua a presión atmosférica y al vacío, así como también la densidad y la porosidad. Para los fines de este estudio solo se disponía de doce muestras: ocho de enlucido y cuatro de mortero. Del total de las muestras, once estaban constituidas por morteros o enlucidos con aglutinante de cal y agregados de sílice. En todas ellas se han detectado calcita y cuarzo. En la mayoría se ha hallado por lo menos un componente puzolánico, por lo que puede afirmarse que en gran parte de los morteros estudiados se da el efecto hidráulico. A excepción de los enlucidos tomados en construcciones acuíferas, como cister nas, y de la muestra de mortero del suelo compacto, el contenido de aglutinante es elevado. En general, la porosidad de las muestras estudiadas es alta. La porosi dad y los resultados del estudio petrográfico sugieren que la combustión de caliza fue de breve duración y/o tuvo lugar a bajas temperaturas; dichas condiciones de preparación producen cal viva. Como se han encontrado diferencias significativas en la composición y los tejidos de las muestras, no se puede emplear ningún mor tero de composición de tipo genérico para restaurar la totalidad del yacimiento.简介 针对十二份取自 Barsinia 建筑的泥浆和灰泥样本，均使用X射线衍射、立体显微镜和 偏光显微镜进行矿物学和岩相学分析测试，总含碳量使用 DietrichFruhling 碳酸计进行 测量。针对样本的物理特性，进行了如压力环境和真空下吸水性，材料密度和多孔性 测试。为达到实验目的仅准备 12 份样本： 8 份灰泥（ Plaster ）样本， 4 份泥浆（ Mor tar ）样本。总样本中的 11 份灰泥或泥浆样本混有石灰粘合剂和氧化硅集合体，每份样 本中均有方解石和石英成分存在。 在大部分样本中存在一种或多种白榴火山灰成分，因此在大部分泥浆研究中液压作 用均被实际证实。排除从含水结构如蓄水池中获得的灰泥样本和紧凑地板结构中获得 的泥浆样本，其他样本中均有高含量的粘合剂成分。多孔性和岩相调查提醒石灰常温 燃烧性很低，并且/或着燃烧时间持续很短；这样的条件下产生生石灰。样品间组成和 组织成分有很明显差别，因此在进行整个建筑群修复时，不可以仅使用同一种泥浆。Резюме Двенадцать образцов раствора и штукатурки, отобранных в археологиче ских раскопках в Барсинии, стали предметом минералографического и петрог рафического исследования, используя рентгенофазовый анализ и стереоско пические и поляризационные микроскопы, в то время как общее содержание карбонатов было измерено при помощи кальциметра ДитрихаФрюлинга. Были измерены такие физические характеристики образцов, как поглощение воды при атмосферном давлении и в вакууме, а также их плотность и пористость. Для проведения этого исследования в распоряжении имелось только двенад цать образцов: 8 образцов штукатурки и 4 образца раствора. Из общего коли чества образцов одиннадцать представляли собой растворы или штукатурки с известковым вяжущим и кремнеземными агрегатами, и во всех этих образцах можно бы обнаружить кальцит и кварц. В большинстве образцов были найде ны один или несколько пуццолановых компонентов, поэтому, гидравлический эффект возникает практически в большинстве исследуемых растворов. За исключением штукатурок, отобранных в таких водоносных сооружениях, как цистерны, и образца раствора из плотного пола, наблюдается высокое содер жание вяжущего вещества. В общем плане пористость исследуемых образцов является высокой. Пористость и заключения петрографического исследования наводят на мысль о том, что известняк горел при низкой температуре и/или в течение непродолжительного времени. При таких условиях подготовки получа ется негашеная известь. Поскольку были обнаружены значительные различия в составе и в текстуре разных образцов, невозможно применение одного общего раствора для реставрации всего объекта

INVESTIGATION OF SOIL ARCHING UNDER DIFFERENT MODES OF SOIL MOVEMENT AND SURFACE LOADING

Soil arching exists in many geotechnical applications, including tunnels, buried pipes and culverts, and Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported (GRPS) embankments. The existence of these buried structures or structural elements within soil masses causes redistribution of stresses, which is referred to as soil arching. The relative stiffness and differential settlement between these buried structures and their surrounding soils affect the magnitude and distribution of vertical stresses. Soil arching has been mostly investigated using trapdoor tests under soil self-weight and/or uniform surcharge. In real applications, localized surface loading, such as traffic loading, may be applied onto soil and affect or degrade soil arching. Also, additional stresses caused by traffic loading on a buried structure may cause excessive deformations and even failure of the buried structure. Geosynthetics have been used in GRPS embankments or over buried pipes and may have effects on soil arching mobilization and degradation under localized surface loading. Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam, a lightweight material, has been increasingly used above buried structures as a compressible inclusion to reduce vertical stresses acting on the buried structures. The effects of surface traffic loading and geosynthetics on soil arching have not yet been well investigated. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate soil arching under different modes of soil movement and surface loading. To fulfill the above research objective, a comprehensive experimental study and numerical analysis were conducted. The experimental study included two experimental series. The first experimental series consisted of reduced-scale models of a buried box culvert that were constructed in a test box under a plane-strain condition. This study adopted the Induced Trench Installation (ITI) method to place the concrete culvert overlaid with an EPS geofoam and investigated the effects of EPS geofoam, including geofoam stiffness and thickness, on the distribution of vertical stresses above a rectangular concrete culvert under surface footing loading. The second experimental series utilized the trapdoor test setup to investigate the effects of localized surface loading on soil arching mobilization and degradation in geosynthetic-reinforced and unreinforced embankments under a plane-strain condition. The trapdoor was supported by compressible springs of a known stiffness and could move under fill self-weight and surface loading to simulate soil subsidence and/or consolidation of foundation (soft) soil between rigid supports. In both experimental series, the backfill material was a dry, poorly-graded Kansas River sand. The footing load was applied parallelly to the culvert or the trapdoor axes. Earth pressure cells were used to monitor the vertical stress distributions above the culvert, the trapdoor, and the surrounding soil. To comprehensively assess the effects of localized surface loading with different configurations, numerical models simulating trapdoor tests were built and validated against the results of the experimental tests. A series of parametric studies were conducted to investigate: the effects of fill height, the most critical condition of the surface loading (as for the footing width and location), and the effects of non-uniform trapdoor displacements by multi-segment trapdoors on soil arching mobilization. The experimental results of the buried box culvert show that the EPS geofoam reduced the vertical stresses on the buried structure due to the mobilization of soil arching. However, soil arching was found to be partially mobilized based on the measured soil arching ratio due to the low modulus ratio of soil to geofoam that caused limited compression of the geofoam. The lower stiffness and thin geofoam had more effect on the vertical stress reduction. Cyclic loading minimized the soil arching effect induced by the compressible geofoam. This study also examines the test results with available analytical solutions. The effects of soil arching and the induced vertical stresses above the rigid structure under static footing loading were considered separately. The analytical solutions were found to match well with the experimental results. The trapdoor test results show that the displacement of the trapdoor during the fill placement induced progressive mobilization of soil arching and geosynthetic reinforcement minimized soil arching mobilization due to the change of the soil deformation. Localized surface loading increased the degree of soil arching at low applied pressure (approximately 50 kPa); however, under higher footing loading, soil arching degraded or stress recovered due to larger trapdoor displacement. Single and double layers of geosynthetic reinforcement helped maintain soil arching under localized surface loading. Geosynthetic reinforcement increased the applied surface load required to fully degrade soil arching and eliminate the benefit of the geosynthetic. Soil arching exhibited arching degradation and even collapse under static loading; however, arching degradation was less pronounced under cyclic loading as the applied pressure increased beyond 80 kPa due to larger differential settlement within the fill. The results of the numerical simulations show that the degree of soil arching increased as the fill height (H) increased due to the additional shear forces mobilized throughout the fill material. Consequently, less pressure was applied on the trapdoor and more pressure transferred to the supports as the fill height increased from H/B of 1 to 3 (B is the trapdoor width). The model with a footing width of 0.5B was the most critical width and had the highest vertical pressure on the trapdoor for H/B of 2; however, the model with a footing width of 1B had the highest pressure on the trapdoor for both H/B of 1 and 3. The model with a footing offset of 0.0B from the centerline of the trapdoor had the highest vertical pressure on the centerline of the trapdoor. Also, as the footing offset increased to 1B, less pressure reached the trapdoor and more pressure transferred onto the support. In this study, an analytical solution was proposed based on Terzaghi’s theory but for localized footing loading along the centerline of the trapdoor. This solution well predicted the measured vertical pressures on the trapdoor under localized footing loading as compared with the trapdoor test results obtained in this study. In addition to the experimental tests, eight numerical models with different fill height to trapdoor width ratios (H/B = 1, 2, and 3) and different footing widths (0.25B, 0.5B, 1B, 1.5B, 2B, and 5B (uniform)) were selected and their numerical results were compared well with the proposed solution. The numerical results further validated the proposed solution for soil arching over a trapdoor or a yielding soil zone under localized footing loading

INVESTIGATION OF SOIL ARCHING STABILITY UNDER STATIC AND CYCLIC SURFACE LOADING USING TRAPDOOR MODEL TESTS

Soil arching is a phenomenon describing pressure redistribution due to relative movement between adjoining portions. It commonly exists when soil interacts with structure elements, for example, tunnels, retaining walls, buried structures, and piles in pile-supported embankments. Therefore, soil arching is a key mechanism of load transfer in these geotechnical applications. The performance of these applications, where differential settlement, complete loss of support, or differential stiffness occurs, highly depends on the stability of the soil arching. Trapdoor tests have been widely used by researchers to demonstrate and investigate the soil arching phenomenon. However, most trapdoor tests have been conducted under soil self-weight or soil self-weight plus uniform static surface load. In other words, the soil arching was investigated focusing on particle-particle interaction instead of stress transfer due to localized external loading. In addition, earth structures are often subjected to cyclic surface loading (due to moving vehicles and railroad crossings) and dynamic-in-depth loading (due to pile driving, blast waves, and earthquakes). Unfortunately, limited research of cyclic or dynamic loading on soil arching stability was conducted. Moreover, current design methods for geosynthetic-reinforced earth structures involving soil arching, such as geosynthetic over voids and geosynthetic-reinforced pile-supported embankments, were mostly based on the findings from trapdoor studies without any geosynthetic. This extrapolation lacks appropriate theoretical and experimental justifications. This study is to address the aforementioned points by conducting a series of physical model tests under a plane strain condition. Fourteen model tests were conducted including two baseline tests and twelve other tests. The two baseline tests were carried out under only footing loading, one with static loading and another with cyclic loading. The remaining twelve tests consisted of both trapdoor and loading tests to evaluate the stability of the soil arching. Kansas River sand was used as a granular fill material. Both unreinforced and geosynthetic-reinforced embankments were investigated. Fully mobilized soil arching was first reached by lowering the trapdoor, and then a footing load was applied on the surface. Both static and cyclic loads were applied to simulate traffic loading. Pressure distribution, footing and trapdoor displacements, geosynthetic strains, and embankment soil movement were monitored during each test. The trapdoor test results show that the progressive displacement of the trapdoor affected the mobilization of the soil arching. Soil arching started to mobilize as the pressure on the trapdoor decreased and then deteriorated as the pressure on the trapdoor increased under soil self-weight after the trapdoor displacement increased to more than 2.5% of its width. However, the use of geosynthetic reinforcement prevented the deterioration of the soil arching and lowered the equal settlement plane height, although the trapdoor was lowered more than 4% of its width. The loading test results show that soil arching was not stable under surface loading without a geosynthetic, and the geosynthetic stabilized soil arching. To evaluate the progressive change of soil arching, soil arching ratio is defined as the ratio of the measured pressure on the trapdoor at a trapdoor displacement to the measured pressure on the trapdoor at no displacement. Soil Arching Degradation Pressure (SADP) is defined as an applied footing pressure required to eliminate soil arching (i.e., the soil arching ratio equal to 1.0). In the unreinforced embankment tests under static and cyclic loading, the SADPs were the same and equal to 54.0 kPa. Also, mobilizing soil arching under static and cyclic footing load (i.e., lowering the trapdoor under footing load) further decreased the SADPs to 45.0 kPa. The SADPs under static footing loading were increased from the unreinforced embankment to the reinforced embankment by 38.2% and 99.6% with the use of uniaxial and biaxial geogrids, respectively. Geosynthetic reinforcement further increased the SADPs under cyclic footing loading as compared to those under static footing loading by 17.5% and 9.13 % with the use of uniaxial and biaxial geogrids, respectively. Finally, the SADPs in the double layer of geosynthetic reinforcement tests were lower than those in the single layer of geosynthetic reinforcement tests

The Grounds for Divorce for Christians: A Comparative study with Islamic law/Shari’ah and the Personal Status Law of Jordan for 2010

This study is about reasons for divorce according to Christianity in comparison to Islamic Law/Shari’ah and the New Jordanian Personal Status Law of 2010. The study includes two chapters, while the first one defines divorce and its ruling “hokom” according to Shari’ah and Christianity, the other chapter of the research studies reasons for divorce for Christians, and how Shari’ah and the Jordanian Personal Status Law interpret these reasons. The study concludes that most of the divorce reasons in Christianity are already there in Shari’ah and the Jordanian Law, which is based on this magnificent Shari’ah. It also reveals that Divorce is not only related to our Shari’ah, but also it is followed by many Christian Sects

Binderless zeolite monoliths production with sacrificial biopolymers

3D printing has emerged as an attractive way of formulating structured adsorbents, as it imparts lower manufacturing costs compared to hydraulic extrusion while also allowing for unprecedented geometric control. However, binderless structures have not been fabricated by 3D printing, as ink formulation has previously required clay binders which cannot be easily removed. In this study, we report the development of a facile approach to shape engineer binderless zeolites. 3D-printed inks comprised of 13X, 5A, ZSM-5, and experimental South African zeolites were prepared using gelatin and pectin as binding agents along with dropwise addition of various solvents. After printing, the dried monoliths were calcined to remove the biopolymers and form 100% pure zeolite structures. From N2 physisorption and CO2 adsorption measurements at 0 °C, all monoliths showed narrowing below 1 nm from their powders, which was attributed to pore malformation caused by intraparticle bridging during calcination

Field Monitoring of Wicking Geotextile for Moisture Reduction in Pavements

C2125Water is often detrimental to the performance of pavements since it reduces soil strength and modulus and provides sources for erosion and freeze-thaw of base courses and subgrade. A common approach to removing water within pavements is to provide a drainage system, which is effective only when the soil beneath the pavement is saturated or nearly saturated and water drains out under a hydraulic gradient. However, a majority of subgrade soils and aggregate bases beneath pavements are unsaturated during their service life. Therefore, the traditional drainage method becomes ineffective in removing water from pavements under undrained conditions. A wicking geotextile product available in the market that includes wicking fibers has been proven effective in removing water under both saturated and unsaturated conditions due to its wicking ability in limited laboratory tests and field projects. The field study in this project consisted of three sections with tests designed to answer the following: 1. Whether the wicking geotextile can replace cement treatment of the natural subgrade to minimize capillary rise, 2. Whether the wicking geotextile can maintain low water content in the aggregate base, and 3. Whether the aggregate type affects the effectiveness of the wicking geotextile. To evaluate the effectiveness of the wicking geotextile, moisture sensors were installed in these three sections to monitor their water content changes for two and a half years. The monitoring data showed that the wicking geotextiles with the natural subgrade was more effective to remove water from the aggregate base than the non-woven geotextile with the cement-treated subgrade and maintain the aggregate base at a low water content during the dry period. The wicking geotextile could not stop the rise of the groundwater table and was not effective in performing the wicking function when the groundwater table was above the wicking geotextile; however, it became effective when the groundwater table was below the wicking geotextile. Further verification of its effectiveness to reduce water contents of soils in concrete pavements in the field is necessary before its widespread applications

العنف السياسي في وطننا العربي إشكالية

تناولت هذه الدراسة إشكالية العنف السياسي في العالم العربي حيث ركزت على رصد وتحليل وتقديم ظاهرة العنف السياسي الداخلي في الدول العربية وذلك من خلال الإجابة على التساؤل التالي: - هل العنف السياسي في الوطن العربي نتيجة للتناقضات الموجودة داخل النظام السياسي؟ - هل العنف نتيجة للظلم الذي تعاني منه الشعوب العربية؟ حيث تكمن الأهمية الأساسية لهذه الدراسة كونها تدرس أهم العوامل التي ساهمت بشكل مباشر وغير مباشر في تصعيد ظاهرة العنف السياسي بأشكالها المختلفة. بدأت الدراسة بتحديد مفهوم العنف السياسي ثم وضعت أسبابه المتعددة الثقافية والاقتصادية وأشكاله وأهم أنماطه، بالإضافة إلى الانعكاسات السياسية والاقتصادية والاجتماعية للعنف السياسي على العالم العربي

Evaluating and Comparing of Three Penetrability Measuring Devices : Modified Filter Pump, Modified Penetrability Meter, and Short Slot

Rock grouting is a commonly used process for sealing rocks in tunnels to reduce water ingress. In order to achieve sufficient sealing level the grout must effectively penetrate into rock fractures while the limiting factor is filtration of cement based grout. Many devices and measuring methods have been developed to study filtration and to measure the penetrability. The filter pump and the penetrability meter are two of the most commonly used instruments for measuring filtration tendency in the field and in the lab, while short slot is used mainly in the lab. The results obtained from these devices have relatively different estimations of the penetrability partly due to the weaknesses in measuring methods and test procedures. Furthermore, there are no clear criteria to find out which of the results are closer to the reality or how much the results differ among these instruments. The aim of this study is comparing, and evaluating the results of these devices in relatively similar conditions while using more accurate methods of weight-time and pressure-time compared to the less reliable total volume method. The filter pump and the penetrability meter were modified In order to fulfill the requirement of testing in similar conditions and to improve their accuracy and versatility. The results show that increasing the pressure improves the penetrability significantly. The modification of the filter pump results in reducing many uncertainties related to the testing procedure. Probably the modified filter pump has higher accuracy in measuring the penetrability compared to regular filter pump. The short slot has the highest accuracy in estimating penetrability of cement based grout especially at higher pressures, furthermore, the short slot provides a more flexible way to measure penetrability with different pressures in the range of 1-15 bars

Development and deployment of an autonomous micro-drilling system for cochleostomy

This thesis describes the design and development of an autonomous micro-drilling system capable of accurately controlling the penetration of complaint tissues and its application to the drilling of the cochleostomy; a key stage in the cochlea implant procedure. The drilling of the cochleostomy is a precision micro-surgical task in which the control of the burr penetration through the outer bone tissue of the cochlea is vital to prevent damage to the structures within and requires a high degree of skill to perform successfully. The micro-drilling system demonstrates that the penetration of the cochlea can be achieved consistently and accurately. Breakthrough can be detected and controlled to within 20µm of the distal surface and the hole completed without perforation of the underlying endosteal membrane, leaving the membranous cochlea intact. This device is the first autonomous surgical tool successfully deployed in the operating theatre. The system is unique due to the way in which it uses real-time data from the cutting tool to derive the state of the tool-tissue interaction. Being a smart tool it uses this state information to actively control the way in which the drilling process progresses. This sensor guided strategy enables the tool to self-reference to the deforming tissue and navigate without the need for pre-operative scan data. It is this capability that enables the system to operate in circumstances where the tissue properties and boundary conditions are unknown, without the need to restrain the patient.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo