Effect of chemical and enzymatic modifications on the identity characteristics of lard: a review

Lard is a fat substance extracted from the adipose tissues of swine. Due to its specific physical and functional characteristics, lard has found numerous uses in the food and feed industry. Lard has often been subjected to modification through techniques, such as fractionation, partial hydrogenation, and interesterification. Although the application range of lard in food would have widened, these modification techniques could also change the original identity characteristic properties of lard, which enable its detection in food by various analytical methods. The purpose of this review is to present an update of the current literature in this topic and provide some directions for future research

Effect of fractional crystallization on composition and thermal properties of engkabang (Shorea macrophylla) seed fat and cocoa butter

The fractional crystallization behaviors of cocoa butter (CB) and enkabang fat (EF) in acetone were investigated. Melted samples of CB and EF were mixed separately with acetone in 1:2 a (w/v) ratio and partitioned into solid and liquid fractions under controlled temperature conditions. The isolated fractions were compared to their respective native samples with respect to various physico-chemical parameters using standard chemical methods as well as instrumental techniques such as gas liquid chromatography (GLC), reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). According to the results, partitioning of either CB or EF under solvent assisted crystallization conditions yielded a major solid and a minor liquid fraction. The solid and liquid fractions of both fats were found to display many similarities, but few differences with regard to their composition and thermal properties. While the solid fractions may be useful as a hard stock in hard margarine and cosmetic product formulation, the liquid fraction would be useful as an ingredient for food applications

Determination of types of fat ingredient in some commercial biscuit formulations

A study was carried out to compare the composition and thermal profiles of the fat component of six brands of commercial biscuits (BA, BB, BC, BD, BE & BF) with those of lard and palm oil. Extraction of fat from biscuit samples was done using petroleum ether according to the soxhlet extraction procedure. The isolated fat samples along with lard and palm oil were analyzed using gas liquid chromatography (GLC), reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). According to GLC analysis, palm oil, lard and all six biscuit brands had either palmitic or oleic acid as major fatty acids. Sn-2 positional analysis of fatty acids showed that oleic (> 60%) as the most dominant fatty acid of palm oil and biscuit brands BA, BB, BC, and BD while palmitic (> 60%) as the most dominant fatty acid of lard and biscuit brands BE and BF. RP-HPLC analysis showed that the triacylglycerol (TAG) profiles of lard and biscuit brands BE and BF were closely similar while those of brands BA, BB, BC, and BD and palm oil were similar. DSC analysis showed that the cooling and heating profiles of lard and brands BE and BF were similar, while those of palm oil and brands BA, BB, BC, and BD were similar. Hence, this study concluded that biscuit brands BE and BF are not suitable for consumers whose religious restriction prohibit the use of lard as food ingredient

Composition and thermal analysis of lard stearin and lard olein

Lard being an edible fat could be used in different forms in food systems. In this study, composition and thermal analysis of lard stearin (LS) and lard olein (LO) were undertaken to determine some common parameters which would enable their detection in food. A sample of native lard was partitioned into LS and LO using acetone as solvent and the fractions were compared to the original sample with respect to basic physico-chemical parameters, fatty acid and triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, and thermal characteristics. Although LS and LO displayed wider variations in basic physico-chemical parameters, thermal properties and solidification behavior, they do possess some common characteristic features with regard to composition. In spite of the proportional differences in the major fatty acids, both LS and LO are found to possess extremely high amount of palmitic (C16:0) acid at the sn-2 positions of their TAG molecules. Similar to native lard, both LS and LO contained approximately equal proportions of TAG molecules namely, linoleoyl-palmitoyl-oleoyl glycerol (LPO) and dioleoyl-palmitoyl glycerol (OPO). Hence, the calculated LPO/OPO ratio for LS and LO are comparably similar to that of native lard

Effect of fractional crystallization on composition and thermal characteristics of avocado (Persea americana) butter

Fractionation of plant butters like avocado (Persea americana) may yield useful fat derivatives with distinct physical and functional properties. In this study, avocado butter was sequentially crystallized in acetone at 5 °C (2 h), 0 °C (24 h), and −20 °C (24 h) until the mother-liquor becomes devoid of any crystal formation. The high-melting stearin isolated at 5 °C and low-melting olein isolated at −20 °C were compared with the original sample in terms of fatty acid and triacylglycerol (TAG) compositions and thermal profiles. With respect to the original sample, low-melting olein is possessed with higher proportions of diunsaturated and triunsaturated TAG while high-melting stearin is found to become enriched with disaturated and trisaturated TAG molecules. These differences in compositions make the basic physico-chemical parameters as well as the thermal profiles of high-melting stearin and low-melting olein to be distinctly different from those of the original sample

Composition and thermal analysis of ternary mixtures of avocado fat:palm stearin:cocoa butter (Avo:PS:CB)

Avocado fat is a semi-solid substance with potential functional lipid characteristics. A study was carried out to evaluate the effect of addition of palm stearin and cocoa butter on the solidification behavior of avocado fat to formulate a mixture to become similar to lard. A total of three mixtures were prepared: avocado fat:palm stearin:cocoa butter (88:7:5), avocado fat:palm stearin:cocoa butter (86:7:7), avocado fat:palm stearin:cocoa butter (84:7:9; w/w), and identified by the mass ratio of avocado fat to palm stearin and cocoa butter. The fat mixtures were compared with lard in terms of the fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions using gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography, thermal properties using differential scanning calorimetry and solid fat content using p-nuclear magnetic resonance. Although there were considerable differences between lard and the fat mixtures with regard to fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, some similarities were seen with regard to thermal properties and solid fat content profile. Of all the fat mixtures, avocado fat:palm stearin:cocoa butter (84:7:9) displayed closer similarity to lard with respect to thermal transitions at –3.59°C and its solid fat content profile showed the least difference to that of lard throughout the temperature range measured

Basic Requirements of Laboratory Operation for Halal Analysis

Analysis of halal food requires that the laboratories conductive the tests adhere to international guidelines and standards. Common worldwide guidelines and standards for laboratory include the ‘International Organization for Standardization 17025’ (ISO 17025), the ‘Good Manufacturing Practice’ (GMP), and ‘Good Laboratory Practice’ (GLP). In halal analysis, the laboratory shall comply with ISO 17025, GMP, and ‘Good Hygiene Practice’ (GHP) as stated in the ‘Manual Procedure for Malaysia Halal Certification’ (MPPHM). This article discusses the basic requirements for laboratory practises, specifically for halal analysis. The study compares these international guidelines  with ‘Malaysia Halal Standards’ to demonstrate that these international standards are combined with Islamic practices to produce valid test results using globally recognized best-practices. This promotes confidence in the halal laboratory’s work both nationally and internationally, and will thus improve international trade. Keywords: Halal analysis, ISO 17025, GMP, GLP, laboratory operation

Physico-chemical characteristics of papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed oil of the Hong Kong/Sekaki variety

A study was carried out to determine the physicochemical characteristics of the oil derived from papaya seeds of the Hong Kong/Sekaki variety. Proximate analysis showed that seeds of the Hong Kong/Sekaki variety contained considerable amount of oil (27.0%). The iodine value, saponification value, unsaponifiable matter and free fatty acid contents of freshly extracted papaya seed oil were 76.9 g I2/100g oil, 193.5 mg KOH/g oil, 1.52% and 0.91%, respectively. The oil had a Lovibond color index of 15.2Y + 5.2B. Papaya seed oil contained ten detectable fatty acids, of which 78.33% were unsaturated. Oleic (73.5%) acid was the dominant fatty acids followed by palmitic acid (15.8%). Based on the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis, seven species of triacylglycerols (TAGs) were detected. The predominant TAGs of papaya seed oil were OOO (40.4%), POO (29.1%) and SOO (9.9%) where O, P, and S denote oleic, palmitic and stearic acids, respectively. Thermal analysis by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that papaya seed oil had its major melting and crystallization transitions at 12.4°C and -48.2°C, respectively. Analysis of the sample by Z-nose (electronic nose) instrument showed that the sample had a high level of volatile compounds

Enzymatic interesterification of lauric fat blends formulated by grouping triacylglycerol melting points

Lauric fat blends (appreciable amount of lauric fat with liquid oil and hard fat) initially formulated for shortening production by grouping triacylglycerol (TAG) melting points were further modified by enzymatic interesterification (EIE) to improve their key functionalities as plastic fats. At a similar fat blend formulation, only the high melting fat and medium melting fat were interesterified in binary-EIE. Meanwhile, both fats and the liquid oil were interesterified in ternary-EIE. The solid fat content (SFC) of all binary-EIE blends was generally retained as similar in the temperature range between 0 and 20 °C when the amount of unsaturated TAGs was limited by excluding the liquid oil during EIE. However, the SFC was significantly reduced at temperatures above 20 °C compared to that of the initial blends. Furthermore, the melting point of binary-EIE blends at BH50H15 formulation prepared with palm stearin and fully hydrogenated rapeseed oil as the hard fat was found to be drastically reduced from 54.6 to 35.3 °C and from 62.8 to 39.2 °C, respectively. In contrast, the SFC of ternary-EIE blends was generally reduced when more unsaturated TAGs were available for EIE by including the liquid oil. However, higher SFC was noticed at temperatures around 10 °C in ternary-EIE blends, as the amount of high-melting fractions in their initial blends was increased from BH50H5 to BH50H15. Eventually, both binary and ternary-EIE were also found to significantly alter the crystal microstructure of lauric fat blends, in terms of crystal morphology, size and network density

Physico-chemical characterisation of the fat from red-skin rambutan (Nephellium lappaceum L.) seed

The seeds (6.9±0.2% by weight of fruit) of the red-skin rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) contain a considerable amount of crude fat (38.0±4.36%) and thus, the aim of the study was to determine the physico-chemical properties of this fat for potential applications. The iodine and saponification values, and unsaponifiable matter and free fatty acid contents of the seed fat were 50.27 g I2/100g fat, 182.1 mg KOH/g fat, 0.8% and 2.1%, respectively. The fat is pale yellow with a Lovibond color index of 3.1Y+1.1R. The fatty acid profile indicates an almost equal proportion of saturated (49.1%) and unsaturated (50.9%) fatty acids, where oleic (42.0%) and arachidic (34.3%) acids were the most dominant fatty acids. It also contained small amounts of stearic (8.0%), palmitic (4.6%), gadoleic (5.9%), linoleic (2.2%), behenic (2.1%) palmitoleic (0.7%) myristic (0.1%) and erucic (0.1%) acids. HPLC analysis showed that the fat comprised mainly unknown triacylglycerols (TAG) with high retention times indicating they have higher carbon numbers compared with many vegetable oils. The fat has melting and cooling points of 44.2°C and –42.5°C, respectively, making it a semi-solid at room temperature. The solid content at 0°C was 53.5% and the fat melted completely at 40°C. z-Nose analysis showed that the presence of high levels of volatile compounds in red-skin rambutan seed and seed fat