Using acoustic testing to estimate strength and stiffness of wood-polymer composites

This study used non-destructive testing with ultrasonic and stress wave propagation to evaluate bending strength and stiffness of wood-polymer composites. Twelve composite plate products were produced with different formulations of polymer matrix (high- and low-density polyethylene and polypropylene) and type and proportion of flour (coconut shell and wood). Mechanical and acoustic properties were influenced primarily by the type of matrix used in the composite. The greater the proportion of wood and coconut shell flour the higher the wave propagation velocity, stiffness, and strength. We found a correlation between mechanical properties (strength and stiffness) and wave velocity and stiffness coefficient. We also present linear regression equations of the stiffness and strength of the specimen as a function of wave velocity and stiffness coefficient obtained through non-destructive testing. For polypropylene and high-density polyethylene matrix composites, the stiffness coefficient provided a better estimate of stiffness, while for low-density polyethylene the wave velocity provided better results

Nondestructive testing used on timber in spain: A literature review

Nondestructive testing (NDT) includes several highly efficient techniques for the estimation of the physical and mechanical properties of structural timber. Apart from visual grading, scientific research using Nondestructive testing on timber has been used in Spain since the 1990s. Nondestructive testing can be used for two different purposes: timber grading and the assessment of existing timber structures. The most common devices used in Spain are portable ones based on ultrasound, stress waves, vibration and probing techniques. Many statistical linear models for estimating the mechanical properties of new sawn timber and timber from existing structures have been proposed. Furthermore, several factors that affect Nondestructive testing measurements have been studied (moisture content, temperature, specimen dimensions, sensors position-grain angle…) and adjustment factors have also been proposed. Species have been characterized for visual grading standards from the 1980s to date. The large number of research works using different species, devices and procedures shows the need of homogenization and standardization of Nondestructive testing use. This paper presents a review of research works using Nondestructive testing on timber in Spain, in order to add to knowledge, elucidate the concepts to unify Nondestructive testing used and promote research group collaboration in the near future

In-situ density estimation by four nondestructive techniques on Norway spruce from built-in wood structures

Needle penetration resistance (NPR), screw withdrawal resistance (SWR), core drilling (CD) and drilling chips extraction (DCE) are nondestructive and semi-destructive techniques used to estimate density in timber structures. In most of the previous studies, these techniques were tested in clear sawn timber and clear specimens. The goal of the present paper is to study the relationship between density and these techniques by means of five different devices in whole pieces of timber from built-in engineering structures, which are from 12 4.5-m long structural timber joists of Norway spruce from a 19th century building in Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain). Although determination coefficients (R2) for density estimation models were lower than those from clear timber, the results obtained confirmed that these four techniques are suitable for in-situ density estimation of woods in buildings. The best results were obtained by CD (the bigger the bit, the higher the correlation), followed by DCE, and SWR. The worst correlation was found for NPR devices, but the results could be probably improved with more measurements.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Los métodos de vibración como herramienta no destructiva para la estimación de las propiedades resistentes de la madera aserrada estructural

The non-destructive testing of structural sawn timber using the resonant frequency methods uses the natural frequency of pieces to assess the quality of test samples. This paper describes the theoretical basis of this non-destructive technique and an investigation into the suitability of this tool. The results of grading 120 pieces of gross cross-section (150 x 200 x 4,060 mm and 200 x 250 x 5,060 mm) structural timber of European black pine, (Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (Dunal) Franco) are shown. Furthermore, the specimens were tested for bending according to the UNE-EN 408: 2004 standard, to compare the values of strength and stiffness obtained from this test with the results estimated using the non-destructive method. PLG (the Portable Lumber Grader) developed at the Wood NDT Laboratory of the University of Western Hungary, in Sopron, was used to measure the frequency of the longitudinal stress wave. This equipment determines the frequency and the density of the specimens, and uses them, to evaluate the dynamic modulus of elasticity and to estimate the strength. For gross cross-section European black pine pieces, a strong relationship exists between dynamic modulus obtained by longitudinal vibration frequency and the mechanical properties. Acoustic measurements have become widely acceptable, because they are accurate, portable, cheap and easy to apply.La clasificación no destructiva de madera aserrada estructural mediante los métodos de vibración, utiliza la frecuencia natural de la pieza para llegar a definir la calidad del material. Este artículo describe los fundamentos teóricos de esta técnica no destructiva y un trabajo de investigación enfocado a valorar la idoneidad de dicha herramienta. Se muestran los resultados de clasificación de 120 piezas de gruesa escuadría (150 x 200 x 4.060 mm y 200 x 250 x 5.060 mm) de madera aserrada estructural de pino laricio, (Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (Dunal) Franco). Adicionalmente, las probetas fueron ensayadas a fl exión conforme a la norma UNE-EN 408: 2004, para comparar los valores de resistencia y rigidez obtenidos mediante este ensayo con los estimados utilizando este método no destructivo. Se utilizó el PLG (Portable Lumber Grader), desarrollado en el Laboratorio de Técnicas No Destructivas para la Madera de la Universidad del Oeste de Hungría, en Sopron, para la determinación de la frecuencia longitudinal de vibración. Este equipo permite medir la frecuencia y la densidad de las piezas, a partir de las cuales calcula el módulo de elasticidad dinámico y estima la resistencia. Para piezas de gruesa escuadría de pino laricio existe un alto grado de correlación entre el módulo de elasticidad dinámico obtenido a partir de la frecuencia longitudinal de vibración, y las propiedades mecánicas. Los métodos acústicos de clasificación han sido ampliamente aceptados porque son precisos, portátiles, baratos y fáciles de aplicar

Madera aserrada de gran escuadría para uso estructural y sus particularidades

The size effect on mechanical properties of timber is described including the recent evolution of testing procedures and stress grading. Further, a specifi c research work on large cross section timber is explained. A total of 395 pieces of sawn timber from three species (Pinus sylvestris L., Pinus nigra subs. salzmanii (Dunal) Franco and Pinus radiata D. Don) with cross section between 150x200 y 200x250 mm, have been visually graded according to UNE 56544 standard obtaining its output and mechanical properties. The percentage of rejected pieces is too high (38 to 45%) and therefore, a modifi cation of standard specifications is proposed. The output is highly improved in the proposal of standard (rejected percentage of 11 to 17%) whereas the mechanical properties are not modified in practice.A similar procedure was applied to 85 timber pieces from old timber structures of building demolition of Pinus sylvestris L. and Pinus pinaster Ait. The percentage of rejected pieces is 52% in a visual grading according to the application of all grading parameters of the standard UNE 56544:2003. This procedure is not practical for existing structures and therefore, it is proposed the application of grading considering only the parameters of knots size and slope of grain. In that way the output is improved reducing the rejected percentage to 10%.En este artículo se realiza una exposición general del efecto del tamaño en las propiedades mecánicas de la madera y la evolución que han sufrido los procedimientos de ensayo y clasifi cación por esta razón. Además se expone un trabajo de investigación específi co sobre madera de gran escuadría. Sobre un total de 395 piezas de madera aserrada de tres especies (Pinus sylvestris L., Pinus nigra subs. salzmanii (Dunal) Franco y Pinus radiata D. Don) con secciones comprendidas entre 150x200 y 200x250 mm, se ha procedido a su clasifi cación de acuerdo con la norma UNE 56544:2003 determinando su rendimiento y propiedades mecánicas. El porcentaje de piezas que son rechazadas es demasiado elevado (38 a 45%) y por tanto se propone una modifi cación de las especifi caciones de la norma. Con la nueva propuesta de norma el rendimiento aumenta en alto grado (rechazo del 11 al 17%) sin que las propiedades mecánicas se vean afectadas significativamente.Por otro lado se ha seguido un procedimiento similar con 85 piezas de madera procedentes de estructuras antiguas en proceso de derribo de Pinus sylvestris L. y Pinus pinaster Ait. La clasifi cación de acuerdo con la norma UNE 56544:2003 da lugar a un 52% de rechazo aplicando estrictamente todos los parámetros de clasifi cación. Este procedimiento resulta poco viable en la práctica en el caso de estructuras existentes y por tanto, se propone la aplicación de una clasificación basada únicamente en los parámetros del tamaño de los nudos y de la desviación de la fi bra. De esta forma el rendimiento aumenta reduciendo el porcentaje de rechazo al 10%

Estado actual de la investigación sobre madera estructural en España

This article intends to show the current state of the research about structural timber in Spain. An ample compilation of information from people and institutions has been carried out. Information received has been so extensive that a hard work of synthesis has been necesary in order to offer a general and objective vision of the subject.In a few years a new legislative and normative frame has been implanted in Spain, defi ned by the Law of Arrangement of the Construction, the Construction Technical Code and the European Construction Products Directive. In this frame some challenges for the sector arise from the construction and the timber. It is the fi rst time that structural timber is framed within a norm of forced fulfillment, which it supposes not only a challenge but the putting in value of all its potential like structural material.In this frame research necessities have been increased, as well as development and innovation, and it is demostrated by several research iniciatives started in our country, with a clear vocation to respond to the necessities arisen in the sector and to satisfy the raised requirements of security in the norm. In this work, using the compiled information, the research lines on structural timber at the moment in Spain are summarized, as well as their presence in means of national or international diffusion or their direct applications in the industry.Este artículo pretende dibujar un panorama sobre el estado actual de la investigación en torno a la madera estructural desarrollada actualmente en España. Se ha realizado una amplia recopilación de información entre personas e instituciones. La información recibida ha sido tan extensa que ha sido necesaria una difícil labor de síntesis para ofrecer una visión general y objetiva.En poco tiempo ha sido implantado en España un nuevo marco legislativo y normativo defi nido por la Ley de Ordenación de la Edifi cación, el Código Técnico de la Edificación y la Directiva Europea de Productos de la Construcción. En este marco surgen algunos retos para el sector de la construcción a los que la madera no resulta ajena. La madera estructural se enmarca por primera vez en una normativa de obligado cumplimiento, lo que supone no sólo un reto sino la puesta en valor de todo su potencial como material estructural.En este marco se han disparado las necesidades de investigación, desarrollo e innovación, y así lo demuestran las muchas líneas de investigación abiertas en nuestro país, con una clara vocación de responder a las necesidades surgidas en el sector y de satisfacer los requisitos de seguridad planteados en la normativa. En este artículo, con la información recopilada se resumen las líneas de investigación sobre madera estructural que se están desarrollando actualmente en España, así como su presencia en medios de difusión nacional o internacional o sus aplicaciones directas en la industria

Visual grading and structural properties assessment of large cross - section Pinus radiata D. Don timber

The use of large cross-section timber for structural purposes has increased in Spain, and knowledge of its properties is strategically necessary. The Spanish visual strength-grading standard UNE 56544 (2011) efficiency applied to large cross-section structural timber was analyzed using a sample of 363 specimens of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don.) from the Basque Country and Catalonia, Spain. Different sizes were tested (80 × 120 × 2400 mm3, 150 × 250 × 5600 mm3, 150 × 250 × 4300 mm3, and 200 × 250 × 5000 mm3). Bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and density were obtained, and characteristic values were determined in order to assign strength class according to European standard EN 338 (2010). Knots and twists were the most relevant singularities for visual strength grading. It was concluded that large cross-section Spanish radiata pine timber was suitable for structures, and it was assigned to the C20 strength class.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Estimación de la densidad de la madera aserrada de conífera mediante técnicas no destructivas de arranque de tornillos y penetrómetro y su aplicación en la estimación del módulo de elasticidad

The results of probing 395 sawn pieces of Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Laricio pine (Pinus nigra Arn. ssp. salzmannii) from Spanish sources are presented. Specimens had a cross section from 150 x 200 mm, 150 x 250 mm, and 200 x 250 mm. The Screw Withdrawal Force Meter (SWFM) developed by the Wood NDT Laboratory of the University of Western Hungary, in Sopron, and the Pilodyn 6J Wood Tester by Proceq, are the items of equipment used to measure screw withdrawal force and penetration depth, respectively. Based on our results, this paper concludes that for structural coniferous timber the density values estimated from probing measurements are reliable. There is a positive correlation between non-destructive parameters and density (a coefficient of determination r2 of 48.5% to 49.9% is obtained). The authors believe that it is possible to use probing with ultrasonic methods as a good combined nondestructive technique to improve the results of visual grading and modulus of elasticity assessment, at least as an additional parameter in structural sawn timber.Se han efectuado medidas indirectas de la densidad de la madera mediante métodos no destructivos, como la penetración de una varilla con penetrómetro o el arranque de tornillos, sobre probetas procedentes de 395 vigas de tamaño estructural de Pinus radiata D. Don (155), Pinus sylvestris L (120), y Pinus nigra Arn (120). El objeto es tratar de establecer una metodología, para la estimación en obra de la densidad, cuando se realizan tareas de mantenimiento, rehabilitación o restauración. Se han obtenido relaciones estadísticamente significativas entre los valores obtenidos en los ensayos no destructivos y la densidad real de las piezas. Se proponen tres modelos para la estimación de la densidad basados en el resultado del ensayo no destructivo de arranque de tornillos con coeficientes de determinación (R2) de 48,5%, 49,5% y 49,9%. Por ultimo, se plantea, si se desconoce la especie, el uso de un modelo común, que permite estimar la densidad con un R2 de 48,6%. Este dato, permite posteriormente la estimación, junto con los sistemas de ultrasonidos, del módulo de elasticidad de las piezas y su clasificación.

Clonal chromosomal mosaicism and loss of chromosome Y in elderly men increase vulnerability for SARS-CoV-2

The pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19) had an estimated overall case fatality ratio of 1.38% (pre-vaccination), being 53% higher in males and increasing exponentially with age. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, we found 133 cases (1.42%) with detectable clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations (mCA) and 226 males (5.08%) with acquired loss of chromosome Y (LOY). Individuals with clonal mosaic events (mCA and/or LOY) showed a 54% increase in the risk of COVID-19 lethality. LOY is associated with transcriptomic biomarkers of immune dysfunction, pro-coagulation activity and cardiovascular risk. Interferon-induced genes involved in the initial immune response to SARS-CoV-2 are also down-regulated in LOY. Thus, mCA and LOY underlie at least part of the sex-biased severity and mortality of COVID-19 in aging patients. Given its potential therapeutic and prognostic relevance, evaluation of clonal mosaicism should be implemented as biomarker of COVID-19 severity in elderly people. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, individuals with clonal mosaic events (clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations and/or loss of chromosome Y) showed an increased risk of COVID-19 lethality

Warp requirements and yield efficiency in the visual grading of sawn radiata pine timber

Three samples of sawn Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) timber, consisting of 150 pieces with dimensions of 80 mm x 120mm x 2400mm, 80 pieces with dimensions of 150mm x 200mm x 4500 mm, and 75 pieces with dimensions of 150mm x 250mm x 5600 mm, were visually graded according to the Spanish standard UNE 56544 (2011) to analyze the influence of visual grading requirements on both the grading yield and mechanical properties. The resulting percentages of the rejected pieces stood at 19 and 28% for 150 x 200mm and 150 x 250mm cross - section pieces, respectively. That percentage increased to 73% for 80 x 120 mm cross - section pieces. The grading yield and mechanical properties were then analyzed to determine the influence of warp defects. Three different criteria for limiting warp defects were considered, reducing the standard specifications. The modulus of elasticity, bending strength, and density were obtained. The results concluded that loosening specified requisites improves the visual grading output in the smallest cross-section, with no significant reduction in themechanical properties. A proposal for a less rigorous specification of twist defects in the Spanish visual grading standard has been introduced.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version