Loudness of the singing voice: A room acoustics perspective

This thesis is examining ectophonic (sounds created outside the human body) and autophonic (sound from one’s own voice) loudness perception for the operatic voice, within the context of room acoustics. Ectophonic loudness perception was modelled within the context of room acoustics for the operatic voice in chapter two. These models were then used to explore the loudness envelope of the messa di voce (MDV), where psychoacoustically based measures were shown to perform better than physical acoustic measures used in previous studies. The third chapter addressed autophonic loudness perception, while presenting limitations in modelling it in a manner similar to ectophonic loudness models. Some of these limitations were addressed in chapter four with two experiments where autophonic loudness of opera singers was explored using direct psychoacoustical scaling methods, within simulated room acoustic environments. In the first experiment, a power law relationship between autophonic loudness and the sound pressures produced was noticed for the magnitude production task, with different power law exponents for different phonemes. The contribution of room acoustics for autophonic loudness scaling was not statistically significant. Lombard slope, as it applies to autophonic perception and room acoustics was also studied, with some evidence found in support. The second experiment in chapter four explored autophonic loudness for more continuous vocalisations (crescendi, decrescendi, and MDV) using adapted direct scaling methods. The results showed that sensorimotor mechanisms seem to be more important than hearing and room acoustics in autophonic loudness perception, which is consistent with previous research. Overall, this thesis showed that the room acoustics effect on the loudness of the singing voice needs to be assessed based on the communication scenario. This has relevance for voice analysis, loudness perception in general, room acoustics simulation, and vocal pedagogy

Singing in Space(s): Singing performance in real and virtual acoustic environments - Singers' evaluation, performance analysis and listeners' perception

The Virtual Singing Studio (VSS), a loudspeaker-based room acoustic simulation, was developed in order to facilitate investigations into the correlations and interactions between room acoustic characteristics and vocal performance parameters. To this end, the VSS provides a virtual performance space with interactivity in real-time for an active sound source - meaning that singers can hear themselves sing as if in a real performance space. An objective evaluation of the simulation was carried out through measurement and comparison of room acoustic parameters of the simulation and the real performance space. Furthermore a subjective evaluation involved a number of professional singers who sang in the virtual and real performance spaces and reported their impressions of the experience. Singing performances recorded in the real and virtual spaces were compared via the analysis of tempo, vibrato rate, vibrato extent and measures of intonation accuracy and precision. A stimuli sorting task evaluated listeners' perception of the similarity between singing performances recorded in the real and simulated spaces. A multi-dimensional scaling analysis was undertaken on the data obtained and dimensions of the common perceptual space were identified using property fitting techniques in order to assess the relationship between performance attributes and the perceived similarities. In general significant proportions of the perceived similarity between recordings could be explained by differences in global tempo, vibrato extent and intonation precision. Although there were few statistically significant effects of room acoustic condition all singers self-reported changes to their singing according to the different room acoustic configurations, and listeners perceived these differences, especially in vibrato extent and global tempo. The present VSS has been shown to be not fully ``realistic'' enough to elicit variations in singing performance according to room acoustic conditions. Therefore, further improvements are suggested including the incorporation of visual aspect to the simulation. Nonetheless, the VSS is already able to provide a ``plausible'' interactive room acoustic simulation for singers to hear themselves in real-time as if in a real performance venue

Map, Trigger, Score, Procedure: machine-listening paradigms in live-electronics

Since the advent of real-time computer music environments, composers have increasingly incorporated DSP analysis, synthesis, and processing algorithms in their creative practices. Those processes became part of interactive systems that use real-time computational tools in musical compositions that explore diverse techniques to generate, spatialize, and process instrumental/vocal sounds. Parallel to the development of these tools and the expansion of DSP methods, new techniques focused on sound/musical information extraction became part of the tools available for music composition. In this context, this article discusses the creative use of Machine Listening and Musical Information Retrieval techniques applied in the composition of live-electronics works. By pointing out some practical applications and creative approaches, we aim to circumscribe, in a general way, the strategies for employing Machine Listening and Music Information Retrieval techniques observed in a set of live-electronics pieces, categorizing four compositional approaches, namely: mapping, triggering, scoring, and procedural paradigms of application of machine listening techniques in the context of live-electronics music compositions

The Flute Inside-Out: Tracking Internal Movements in Flute Playing

Analyses in the past have revealed that flute sound production is a complex procedure involving internal movements of the body. The larynx and pharynx in particular play a crucial role. Some authors, advocate for the abdominal muscles, while others, draw attention to the lips and the oral cavity. However, despite the various studies, the physiology of flute playing is limited by lack of empirically-derived information about what happens when a player carries out musical tasks. The present study is an empirical investigation of the role of the larynx and pharynx in flute playing from the perspective of a flute specialist. Specifically, the study aims to determine vocal fold involvement in vibrato, epiglottis movements, arytenoids and epiglottis involvement in articulation, and glottal aperture in tone and dynamics production (soft to loud, loud to soft). A detailed analysis of the relationship between standard flute techniques and the larynx and pharynx mechanisms is presented, making a significant contribution to the flute pedagogical literature. Two male and three female experienced players (referred to in the study as “the participants”) participated in a video-nasendoscopy procedure. The behaviour of the participants’ larynxes and pharynxes while playing a performance protocol specifically designed for this research was observed by a qualified speech pathologist. Specifically, the observer analysed true vocal fold adduction, false vocal fold adduction, laryngeal height, pharyngeal space, epiglottis movement, and arytenoid adduction. This study reveals that laryngeal/pharyngeal participation in flute playing is not limited to vibrato production or specific techniques, such as singing and playing or flutter tongue (tongue rolling effect while playing). The larynx plays a major role in producing flute tone and dynamics and should be considered by pedagogues, performers and health specialists. These findings can assist flute professionals in their daily practice, performances and teaching. Knowing the role of the larynx in vibrato, articulation, pitch control, and dynamics control, reveals a new tool for flute players to use with assurance when preparing any piece of the standard repertoire, or teaching a student

Emotion expression in the singing voice : testing a parameter modulation technique for improving communication of emotions through voice qualities

Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan tunneilmaisua lauluäänessä ja sen opetettavuutta parametrimodulaatiotekniikan avulla. Tutkimus on kokeellinen vertailututkimus, jossa käytetään kuuntelijoiden arvioita, akustisia analyysejä ja tilastollista päättelyä lauluäänen tunneilmaisevuuden arvioimiseksi lyhyistä vokaalinäytteistä ja lauletuista fraaseista. Tutkimus koostuu kolmesta osatutkimuksesta, joista ensimmäisessä selvitetään kuulonvaraista tunteen tunnistamista klassisella ja ei-klassisella laulutekniikalla lauletuista näytteistä kolmelta eri sävelkorkeudelta laulettuna. Toinen tutkimus vertailee tunneilmaisun akustisia parametreja klassisessa ja ei-klassisessa laulutekniikassa akustisen analyysin keinoin. Kolmas osatutkimus keskittyy parametrimodulaatio-tekniikan opettamiseen näyttelijäntyön opiskelijoille. Siinä vertaillaan tunneilmaisun selkeyttä opetusta saavan ja verrokkiryhmän välillä ennen ja jälkeen koulutusintervention. Tunneilmaisun selkeyden mittareina tässä tutkimuksessa pidetään tunneilmaisun kuulonvaraista tunnistamista ja ääniparametrien vaihtelua eri tunneilmaisujen välillä. Tutkimukseen osallistui 29 (tutkimus I) ja 32 (tutkimus III) ääninäytteiden kuuntelijaa, 11 naislaulajaa (6 klassisen laulutekniikan koulutuksen ja 5 populaarimusiikin laulutekniikan koulutuksen saaneita) (tutkimukset I & II), 2 mieslaulajaa (1 klassisen laulutekniikan koulutuksen ja 1 populaarimusiikin laulutekniikan koulutuksen saanut)(tutkimus I) sekä 6 + 6 laulunäytteitä antanutta näyttelijäopiskelijaa, joista toinen ryhmä osallistui parametrimodulaatiokoulutukseen ja toinen ryhmä sai tavanomaista laulukoulutusta (tutkimus III). Kuuntelijat tunnistivat neutraaleja ilmaisuja ja ilon, lempeyden, surun ja vihan tunteiden ilmaisua lyhyistä vokaalinäytteistä ja fraaseista. Laulajat ilmaisivat tunteita lyhyisiin (16-tahtia tutkimuksissa I & II & 8-tahtia tutkimuksessa III) melodioihin, joista ääninäytteet leikattiin. Pitkät [a:]-vokaalinäytteet analysoitiin Praat-äänenanalyysiohjelmalla. Äänestä mitattiin perustaajuus (fo), äänenpainetaso (SPL), formanttitaajuudet (F1-F5), hälyn suhde periodiseen ääneen (HNR), energian suhde spektrin ylempien ja alempien taajuuksien välillä (Alpha ratio), epäsäännöllinen syklinen variaatio perustaajuudessa (Jitter rap & ppq5), epäsäännöllinen syklinen variaatio amplitudissa (Shimmer apq3 ja apq5), vibratot (fo-vaihtelun taajuus ja laajuus & amplitudivaihtelun taajuus ja laajuus) sekä amplitudikontuurin muoto (äänen voimakkuuskäyrän muoto vokaalin aikana): isku, pidätys ja haipuminen (attack, sustain, release). Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittivat, että tunneilmaisu on mahdollista tunnistaa lauluäänestä, kun laulajat ilmaisevat tunnetta (tutkimukset I & III). Tässä tutkimuksessa tunneilmaisun tunnistaminen tuli helpommaksi sen jälkeen, kun laulajat saivat ohjeet parametrimodulaatiotekniikan käytöstä (tutkimus III). Tunneilmaisu tunnistettiin paremmin ei-klassisella tyylillä lauletuista laulunäytteistä (tutkimus I). Äänenkorkeudella, äänenpaineen tasolla sekä tunteen valenssilla (positiivinen/negatiivinen) ja aktivaatiotasolla (korkea/matala) oli vaikutusta tunteen tunnistamiseen (tutkimukset I-III). SPL, Alpha ratio ja HNR arvot kohosivat korkean aktiviteetin tunteissa (viha ja ilo) ja laskivat matalan aktiviteetin tunteissa (suru ja lempeys), mikä viittaa suurempaan lihasaktiivisuuteen ja tiukempaan äänihuulisulkuun korkean energian tunteissa (tutkimukset II & III). Formantit pakkautuivat korkean energian tunteissa ja sirottuivat matalan energian tunteissa, joka viittaa ääntöväylän muokkaukseen tunneilmaisussa (tutkimukset II & III). Jitteriä ja shimmeriä esiintyi enemmän matalan energian tunteissa, joka viittaa matalampaan lihasaktiivisuuteen (tutkimus II), fo-vibrato oli hitaampaa klassisesti koulutetuilla laulajilla (tutkimus II), kun taas ei-klassisilla laulajilla amplitudivibrato erotteli tunteita (tutkimus II). Äänen lopetukset olivat tilastollisesti merkitseviä tunneilmaisun kannalta ei-klassisella laulutekniikalla laulavilla laulajilla (tutkimus II). Tutkimuksen pääkysymys oli, onko mahdollista integroida vokologista tutkimustietoa tunneilmaisun akustisista parametreista laulunopetukseen ja sillä tavoin tehostaa tunneilmaisua lauluäänessä. Käytimme tutkimuksessa parametrimodulaatiotekniikkaan keskittyvää seitsemän viikon harjoitusohjelmaa, jossa opetettiin erilaisten äänenlaatujen käyttöä näyttelijäopiskelijaryhmälle. Samanlainen näyttelijäopiskelijaryhmä, joka ei saanut erityiskoulutusta, toimi kontrolliryhmänä. Testiryhmä lisäsi erilaisten äänenlaatujen käyttöä tunneilmaisun välineenä koulutuksen jälkeen. Tämä tulos vahvistettiin kuuntelijoiden arvioinneilla ja akustisilla analyyseillä. Tällaista vaikutusta ei näkynyt kontrolliryhmällä. Koulutuksen jälkeen testiryhmä näytti käyttävän taktisesti systemaattisemmin ensimmäistä formanttitaajuutta, äänenpainetasoa, hälyn määrää äänessä ja Alpha ratiota tunneilmaisuun. Tutkimus osoitti, että äänenpainetaso ja tapa, jolla energia jakautuu äänispektrissä, olivat kaksi tyypillisintä äänen tunnepiirteiden indikaattoria. Tutkimuksessa todetaan, että erilaisten äänenlaatujen kouluttaminen voi auttaa ilmaisemaan tunteita lauluäänessä.This study examines emotional expression in singing and its teachability using a novel parameter modulation technique. The work is an experimental comparative study using listener evaluations, acoustic analyses, and statistical deduction to assess the emotional expressiveness of the singing voice from short vocal samples and sung phrases. The investigation consists of three sub-studies, the first of which explores the auditory recognition of emotion from samples sung with Classical and non-Classical singing techniques at three different pitches. The second study compares the qualitative features of emotional expression in Classical and non-Classical singing techniques by means of acoustic analysis. The third sub-study focuses on teaching the parameter modulation technique to acting students. It compares the clarity of emotional expression between the instructional and control groups before and after the training intervention. The measures of emotional expression clarity in this study are considered to be the auditory recognition of emotional expression and the qualitative variation of the voice between different emotional expressions. The study involved 29 (Study I) and 32 (Study III) listeners of sound samples, 11 female singers (six with Classical singing technique training and five with popular music singing technique training) (Studies I & II), two male singers (one with Classical singing technique training and one with popular singing technique training) (Study I), and six + six acting students who gave song samples, one group of whom participated in the parameter modulation training while the other group received standard singing training (Study III). Listeners were to classify samples into neutral expressions and expressions of joy, tenderness, sadness, and anger from short vowel samples and phrases. The emotions were chosen because of their opposite positioning on the valence-activation scale. Singers sang spontaneous emotional expression into short melodies (16 bars in Studies I & II & 8 bars in Study III) from which sound samples were cut. Samples of the sung [a:] vowel were analyzed with the Praat sound analysis program. The samples were analyzed for fundamental frequency (fo), sound pressure level (SPL), formant frequencies (F1-F5), harmonics- to-noise ratio (HNR), energy ratio between upper and lower frequencies of the spectrum (Alpha ratio), irregular cycle-to-cycle variation of fundamental frequency (Jitter rap & ppq5), irregular cycle-to-cycle variation of amplitude (apq3 & apq5), vibratos (fo rate and extent & rate and extent of amplitude), and amplitude contour: attack, sustain, release. The results of the study showed that emotional expression can be identified from the singing voice when singers express emotion spontaneously (Studies I & III). In this study, the identification of emotional expression became easier after singers received instructions on the use of the parameter modulation technique (Study III). Emotional expression was better identified from song samples sung in a non-Classical style (Study I). Pitch, SPL, emotional valence (positive / negative), and activation level (high / low) had an effect on emotional recognition (Studies I-III). SPL, Alpha ratio, and HNR values increased in expressions of high activity emotions (anger and joy) and decreased in expressions of low activity emotions (sadness and tenderness), suggesting increased muscle activity and tighter vocal fold adduction in high energy emotions (Studies II & III). Formants packed in high-energy emotions and scattered in low-energy emotions, suggesting a modification of the vocal tract for the expression of different emotions (Studies II & III). Jitter and shimmer were more prevalent in low-energy emotions, suggesting lower muscle activity (Study II). Fundamental frequency vibrato was slower in Classically trained singers (Study II), whereas in non-Classical singers, amplitude vibrato was statistically significant in differentiating emotions (Study II). Vocal offsets were statistically significant in terms of emotional expression in singers singing with a non-Classical singing technique (Study II). The main question of the study was whether it is possible to integrate vocological research data on the acoustic parameters of emotional expression into practical singing exercises and thus enhance emotional expression in the singing voice. In the study, we used a seven-week training program focusing on parameter modulation techniques that taught the use of different sound qualities to a group of acting students. A similar group of acting students who did not receive special training served as a control group. The test group increased the use of different sound qualities as a means of emotional expression after training. This result was confirmed by acoustic analyses and improved recognition of emotions by the listeners. The control group did not show such an effect. After training, the test team appeared to use F1, SPL, HNR, and alpha ratio for emotional expression more systematically. The study showed that the sound pressure level and the way energy is distributed in the sound spectrum were the two most typical indicators of the emotional characteristics of sound. The study finds that training in different sound qualities can help with the expression of emotions in the singing voice

Electrifying Opera, Amplifying Agency: Designing a performer-controlled interactive audio system for opera singers

This artistic research project examines the artistic, technical, and pedagogical challenges of developing a performer-controlled interactive technology for real-time vocal processing of the operatic voice. As a classically trained singer-composer, I have explored ways to merge the compositional aspects of transforming electronic sound with the performative aspects of embodied singing. I set out to design, develop, and test a prototype for an interactive vocal processing system using sampling and audio processing methods. The aim was to foreground and accommodate an unamplified operatic voice interacting with the room's acoustics and the extended disembodied voices of the same performer. The iterative prototyping explored the performer's relationship to the acoustic space, the relationship between the embodied acoustic voice and disembodied processed voice(s), and the relationship to memory and time. One of the core challenges was to design a system that would accommodate mobility and allow interaction based on auditory and haptic cues rather than visual. In other words, a system allowing the singer to control their sonic output without standing behind a laptop. I wished to highlight and amplify the performer's agency with a system that would enable nuanced and variable vocal processing, be robust, teachable, and suitable for use in various settings: solo performances, various types and sizes of ensembles, and opera. This entailed mediating different needs, training, and working methods of both electronic music and opera practitioners. One key finding was that even simple audio processing could achieve complex musical results. The audio processes used were primarily combinations of feedback and delay lines. However, performers could get complex musical results quickly through continuous gestural control and the ability to route signals to four channels. This complexity sometimes led to surprising results, eliciting improvisatory responses also from singers without musical improvisation experience. The project has resulted in numerous vocal solo, chamber, and operatic performances in Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and the United States. The research contributes to developing emerging technologies for live electronic vocal processing in opera, developing the improvisational performance skills needed to engage with those technologies, and exploring alternatives for sound diffusion conducive to working with unamplified operatic voices. Links: Exposition and documentation of PhD research in Research Catalogue: Electrifying Opera, Amplifying Agency. Artistic results. Reflection and Public Presentations (PhD) (2023): https://www.researchcatalogue.net/profile/show-exposition?exposition=2222429 Home/Reflections: https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/2222429/2222460 Mapping & Prototyping: https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/2222429/2247120 Space & Speakers: https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/2222429/2222430 Presentations: https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/2222429/2247155 Artistic Results: https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/2222429/222248

Distinguishing characteristics of vocal techniques in the specialist performance of early music

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Acoustic Measures of the Singing Voice in Secondary School Students

Descriptions of voice quality in vocal and choral music often rely on subjective terminology, which may be perceived differently between individuals. As access to software used in acoustic measurement becomes more widespread and affordable, music educators can potentially combine traditional descriptive terminology with objective acoustic descriptors and data, which may improve both teaching and singing. The secondary school choral music educator has specific challenges, in that they teach students who experience drastic physical and acoustic changes of the voice as they grow from children to adults. The purpose of this study was to objectively analyze various acoustic characteristics of the singing voice in secondary school students. In this study, secondary school students (N = 157) from three different schools who were enrolled in choir (n = 89) or instrumental music classes (n = 68) recorded voice samples singing five vowels, /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, and /u/. Research questions investigated (a) descriptive statistics for vibrato rate, vibrato extent, singing power ratio, and amplitude differences between specific harmonic pairs; (b) differences in vibrato rate and extent between students enrolled in choir and students not enrolled in choir; (c) between-subjects and within-subjects comparisons in singing power ratio (SPR) between singers based on choir enrollment and voice part for five different vowel productions; and (d) between-subjects and within-subjects comparisons for differences in amplitude between specific harmonics between singers based on choir enrollment and voice part for five different vowel productions. Vibrato rate (M = 4.58 Hz, SD = 1.45 Hz ), vibrato extent (M = 1.45% or 25 cents, SD = 0.86% or 15 cents), and SPR (M = 24.67 dB, SD = 10 dB), and various amplitude differences were not different between students enrolled in choir and students not enrolled in choir. There were significant within-subjects differences for singers by vowel, as well as significant within-subjects interactions for vowel and voice part with SPR and amplitude differences between harmonic pairs. There were also significant differences between voice parts for amplitude difference between harmonic pairs. Implications for choral music educators and suggestions for further research based on these findings were discussed in Chapter 5

Pan European Voice Conference - PEVOC 11

The Pan European VOice Conference (PEVOC) was born in 1995 and therefore in 2015 it celebrates the 20th anniversary of its establishment: an important milestone that clearly expresses the strength and interest of the scientific community for the topics of this conference. The most significant themes of PEVOC are singing pedagogy and art, but also occupational voice disorders, neurology, rehabilitation, image and video analysis. PEVOC takes place in different European cities every two years (www.pevoc.org). The PEVOC 11 conference includes a symposium of the Collegium Medicorum Theatri (www.comet collegium.com