Use of Naturally Available Reference Targets to Calibrate Airborne Laser Scanning Intensity Data

We have studied the possibility of calibrating airborne laser scanning (ALS) intensity data, using land targets typically available in urban areas. For this purpose, a test area around Espoonlahti Harbor, Espoo, Finland, for which a long time series of ALS campaigns is available, was selected. Different target samples (beach sand, concrete, asphalt, different types of gravel) were collected and measured in the laboratory. Using tarps, which have certain backscattering properties, the natural samples were calibrated and studied, taking into account the atmospheric effect, incidence angle and flying height. Using data from different flights and altitudes, a time series for the natural samples was generated. Studying the stability of the samples, we could obtain information on the most ideal types of natural targets for ALS radiometric calibration. Using the selected natural samples as reference, the ALS points of typical land targets were calibrated again and examined. Results showed the need for more accurate ground reference data, before using natural samples in ALS intensity data calibration. Also, the NIR camera-based field system was used for collecting ground reference data. This system proved to be a good means for collecting in situ reference data, especially for targets with inhomogeneous surface reflection properties

Absolute Radiometric Calibration of ALS Intensity Data: Effects on Accuracy and Target Classification

Radiometric calibration of airborne laser scanning (ALS) intensity data aims at retrieving a value related to the target scattering properties, which is independent on the instrument or flight parameters. The aim of a calibration procedure is also to be able to compare results from different flights and instruments, but practical applications are sparsely available, and the performance of calibration methods for this purpose needs to be further assessed. We have studied the radiometric calibration with data from three separate flights and two different instruments using external calibration targets. We find that the intensity data from different flights and instruments can be compared to each other only after a radiometric calibration process using separate calibration targets carefully selected for each flight. The calibration is also necessary for target classification purposes, such as separating vegetation from sand using intensity data from different flights. The classification results are meaningful only for calibrated intensity data

Calibration of full-waveform airborne laser scanning data for 3D object segmentation

Phd ThesisAirborne Laser Scanning (ALS) is a fully commercial technology, which has seen rapid uptake from the photogrammetry and remote sensing community to classify surface features and enhance automatic object recognition and extraction processes. 3D object segmentation is considered as one of the major research topics in the field of laser scanning for feature recognition and object extraction applications. The demand for automatic segmentation has significantly increased with the emergence of full-waveform (FWF) ALS, which potentially offers an unlimited number of return echoes. FWF has shown potential to improve available segmentation and classification techniques through exploiting the additional physical observables which are provided alongside the standard geometric information. However, use of the FWF additional information is not recommended without prior radiometric calibration, taking into consideration all the parameters affecting the backscattered energy. The main focus of this research is to calibrate the additional information from FWF to develop the potential of point clouds for segmentation algorithms. Echo amplitude normalisation as a function of local incidence angle was identified as a particularly critical aspect, and a novel echo amplitude normalisation approach, termed the Robust Surface Normal (RSN) method, has been developed. Following the radar equation, a comprehensive radiometric calibration routine is introduced to account for all variables affecting the backscattered laser signal. Thereafter, a segmentation algorithm is developed, which utilises the raw 3D point clouds to estimate the normal for individual echoes based on the RSN method. The segmentation criterion is selected as the normal vector augmented by the calibrated backscatter signals. The developed segmentation routine aims to fully integrate FWF data to improve feature recognition and 3D object segmentation applications. The routine was tested over various feature types from two datasets with different properties to assess its potential. The results are compared to those delivered through utilizing only geometric information, without the additional FWF radiometric information, to assess performance over existing methods. The results approved the potential of the FWF additional observables to improve segmentation algorithms. The new approach was validated against manual segmentation results, revealing a successful automatic implementation and achieving an accuracy of 82%

Geometric Calibration and Radiometric Correction of LiDAR Data and Their Impact on the Quality of Derived Products

LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) systems are capable of providing 3D positional and spectral information (in the utilized spectrum range) of the mapped surface. Due to systematic errors in the system parameters and measurements, LiDAR systems require geometric calibration and radiometric correction of the intensity data in order to maximize the benefit from the collected positional and spectral information. This paper presents a practical approach for the geometric calibration of LiDAR systems and radiometric correction of collected intensity data while investigating their impact on the quality of the derived products. The proposed approach includes the use of a quasi-rigorous geometric calibration and the radar equation for the radiometric correction of intensity data. The proposed quasi-rigorous calibration procedure requires time-tagged point cloud and trajectory position data, which are available to most of the data users. The paper presents a methodology for evaluating the impact of the geometric calibration on the relative and absolute accuracy of the LiDAR point cloud. Furthermore, the impact of the geometric calibration and radiometric correction on land cover classification accuracy is investigated. The feasibility of the proposed methods and their impact on the derived products are demonstrated through experimental results using real data

The use of lasers for hydrographic studies

The utilization of remote laser sensors in water pollution detection and identification, coastal environmental monitoring, and bathymetric depth sounding, is discussed. q

A Review of LIDAR Radiometric Processing: From Ad Hoc Intensity Correction to Rigorous Radiometric Calibration

In addition to precise 3D coordinates, most light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems also record “intensity”, loosely defined as the strength of the backscattered echo for each measured point. To date, LIDAR intensity data have proven beneficial in a wide range of applications because they are related to surface parameters, such as reflectance. While numerous procedures have been introduced in the scientific literature, and even commercial software, to enhance the utility of intensity data through a variety of “normalization”, “correction”, or “calibration” techniques, the current situation is complicated by a lack of standardization, as well as confusing, inconsistent use of terminology. In this paper, we first provide an overview of basic principles of LIDAR intensity measurements and applications utilizing intensity information from terrestrial, airborne topographic, and airborne bathymetric LIDAR. Next, we review effective parameters on intensity measurements, basic theory, and current intensity processing methods. We define terminology adopted from the most commonly-used conventions based on a review of current literature. Finally, we identify topics in need of further research. Ultimately, the presented information helps lay the foundation for future standards and specifications for LIDAR radiometric calibration.Keywords: calibration, normalization, radiometric, correction, intensity, LIDAR, laser scanningThis is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by MDPI. The published article can be found at: http://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensor

Aspects of Accuracy, Scanning Angle Optimization, and Intensity Calibration Related to Nationwide Laser Scanning

Osajulkaisut: Publication 1: Ahokas, E., Kaartinen, H., Hyyppä, J. 2004. A quality assessment of repeated airborne laser scanner observations. The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey, Vol. XXXV, part B3, pp. 237-242. ISSN 1682-1750. Publication 2: Ahokas, E., Hyyppä, J., Kaartinen, H., Kukko, A., Kaasalainen, S., Krooks, A. 2010. The effect of biomass and scanning angle on laser beam transmittance. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vienna, Austria, Vol. XXXVIII(7A), pp. 1-6. ISSN 1682-1777. http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVIII/part7/a/pdf/1_XXXVIII-part7A.pdf Publication 3: Ahokas, E., Hyyppä, J., Yu, X., Holopainen, M. 2011. Transmittance of Airborne Laser Scanning Pulses for Boreal Forest Elevation Modeling. Remote Sensing. 3, 1365-1379. ISSN 2072-4292. http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/3/7/1365/ Publication 4: Kaasalainen, S., Ahokas, E., Hyyppä, J., Suomalainen, J. 2005. Study of surface brightness from backscattered laser intensity: Calibration of laser data. IEEE Geoscience and remote sensing letters, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 255-259, ISSN 1545-598X. Publication 5: Ahokas, E., Kaasalainen, S., Hyyppä, J., Suomalainen, J. 2006. Calibration of the Optech ALTM 3100 laser scanner intensity data using brightness targets. ISPRS Commission I Symposium, Paris Marne-la-Vallee, 4-6 July 2006, ISPRS Volume XXXVI Part 1/A. pp. 14-20. CD-ROM publication. Also in Revue Française de Photogrammétrie et de Télédétection, No. 182, (2006-2), pp. 10-16. Publication 6: Honkavaara, E., Peltoniemi J., Ahokas, E., Kuittinen R., Hyyppä, J., Jaakkola, J., Kaartinen, H., Markelin, L., Nurminen, K., Suomalainen, J. 2008. A Permanent Test Field for Digital Photogrammetric Systems. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 95-106.Airborne laser scanning is a technique that produces three-dimensional coordinates of the Earth’s surface as well as generating intensity values. Nationwide airborne laser scanning was launched in Finland in 2008 and some 180 000 km2 had been scanned by the end of 2012. While the main goal in this endeavour is to produce an accurate digital elevation/terrain model (2 x 2 m2 grid size) of the whole of the country, other applications, e.g. forestry, will benefit from the data as well. This study deals with the accuracy of airborne laser scanning, the optimization of the scanning angle, and the calibration of intensity. Accuracy assessments of airborne laser scanning have shown that the geometric accuracy of the method can fulfill the accuracy requirements for producing a nationwide digital elevation model with a grid of 2 x 2 m2. When studying the effect of scanning angle and biomass on elevation modeling capability, it was found that it would be possible to increase the scanning angle applied in Finland’s nationwide laser scanning. Even though the accuracy of the elevation model in the conditions prevailing in Finland allows increasing of the scanning angle, other applications would most probably not benefit from this. For example, these same data are sometimes used in nationwide forest inventory in Finland. A method for relative and absolute calibration of airborne laser scanning intensity was developed. The portable reference targets have proved their usefulness for calibration purposes. An intensity correction method should be used in pre-processing the airborne laser data. As a result of this, the usability of the intensity values may increase in practical applications, such as in classification. The studies constituting this dissertation have already impacted on the practical aspects of the nationwide airborne laser scanning dealing with accuracy assessment, the work done in the field of intensity calibration, and scanning angle analysis may have a further impact on nationwide laser scanning in the coming years. The optimization of airborne laser scanning flight parameters for multi-use nationwide laser scanning is a topic deserving further research.Ilmasta tehtävä laserkeilaus tuottaa 3D-koordinaatteja maan pinnalta sekä intensiteettiarvoja. Suomen valtakunnallinen laserkeilaus aloitettiin vuonna 2008 ja noin 180000 km2 oli keilattu vuoden 2012 loppuun mennessä. Vaikka päätarkoituksena on tuottaa tarkka digitaalinen korkeus/maastomalli (2 x 2 m2 ruutukoko) koko maasta, muutkin sovellukset, kuten metsätalous, hyötyvät tästä aineistosta. Tämä tutkimus käsittelee ilmasta tehtävän laserkeilauksen tarkkuutta, keilauskulman optimointia sekä intensiteetin kalibrointia. Laserkeilauksen tarkkuusarviointi on osoittanut, että menetelmän geometrinen tarkkuus täyttää valtakunnallisen digitaalisen korkeusmallin tuottamisen tarkkuusvaatimukset. Kun tutkittiin keilauskulman ja biomassan vaikutusta korkeusmallin tuottamiseen, huomattiin että olisi mahdollista kasvattaa valtakunnallisen laserkeilauksen havaintokulmaa. Vaikka korkeusmallin tarkkuus mahdollistaisi Suomen oloissa keilauskulman kasvattamisen, muut sovellukset eivät luultavasti hyötyisi tästä. Esimerkiksi tätä samaa aineistoa käytetään Suomen valtakunnallisessa metsien inventoinnissa. Laserkeilauksen intensiteetin suhteellista ja absoluuttista kalibrointia varten kehitettiin menetelmä. Siirrettävät referenssikohteet osoittivat käyttökelpoisuutensa intensiteetin kalibroinnissa. Intensiteetin kalibrointimenetelmää tulisi käyttää laserkeilausaineiston esikäsittelyssä. Tämän tuloksena intensiteettiarvojen käyttökelpoisuus kasvaisi käytännön sovelluksissa, kuten luokittelussa. Tämän väitöskirjan muodostaneet tutkimukset ovat jo käytännössä vaikuttaneet valtakunnallisen laserkeilauksen tarkkuusarvioinnissa. Intensiteetin kalibrointityö ja keilauskulman analysointi vaikuttanevat valtakunnalliseen laserkeilaukseen tulevina vuosina. Lisätutkimusta tarvitaan ilmasta tehtävän laserkeilauksen lentoparametrien optimoimiseksi monikäyttöistä valtakunnallista laserkeilausta varten

Analysis and Radiometric Calibration for Backscatter Intensity of Hyperspectral LiDAR Caused by Incident Angle Effect

Hyperspectral LiDAR (HSL) is a new remote sensing detection method with high spatial and spectral information detection ability. In the process of laser scanning, the laser echo intensity is affected by many factors. Therefore, it is necessary to calibrate the backscatter intensity data of HSL. Laser incidence angle is one of the important factors that affect the backscatter intensity of the target. This paper studied the radiometric calibration method of incidence angle effect for HSL. The reflectance of natural surfaces can be simulated as a combination of specular reflection and diffuse reflection. The linear combination of the Lambertian model and Beckmann model provides a comprehensive theory that can be applied to various surface conditions, from glossy to rough surfaces. Therefore, an adaptive threshold radiometric calibration method (Lambertian-Beckmann model) is proposed to solve the problem caused by the incident angle effect. The relationship between backscatter intensity and incident angle of HSL is studied by combining theory with experiments, and the model successfully quantifies the difference between diffuse and specular reflectance coefficients. Compared with the Lambertian model, the proposed model has higher calibration accuracy, and the average improvement rate to the samples in this study was 22.67%. Compared with the results before calibration with the incidence angle of less than 70 degrees, the average improvement rate of the Lambertian-Beckmann model was 62.26%. Moreover, we also found that the green leaves have an obvious specular reflection effect near 650-720 nm, which might be related to the inner microstructure of chlorophyll. The Lambertian-Beckmann model was more helpful to the calibration of leaves in the visible wavelength range. This is a meaningful and a breakthrough exploration for HSL.Peer reviewe