Ultrasonic Spot Welding of Thin Walled Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastics

Das Ultraschall-Punktschweißen von faserverstärkten thermoplastischen Kunststoffen hat in der letzten Zeit bei Forschern in der Luftfahrt- und Automobilindustrie großes Interesse hervorgerufen. Es bietet eine effiziente Lösung zum Verbinden großer thermoplastischer Verbundbauteile durch Punktschweißen mit einem hohen Automatisierungsgrad. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine neue Technik zum Fokussieren der Ultraschallschwingungsenergie an der gewünschten Fügestelle zwischen zwei Fügepartnern aus thermoplastischen Verbundlaminaten untersucht. Bei diesem untersuchten Verfahren waren keine zusätzlichen Energierichtungsgeber zwischen den Fügepartnern erforderlich, um die Vibrationsenergie zu fokussieren. Es wurde festgestellt, dass es durch Schweißen der Laminate zwischen einer Sonotrode und einem Amboss möglich war, eine lokalisierte Wärme durch Reibung zu erzeugen in dem die Sonotrode eine größere Kontaktfläche mit dem Laminat als mit dem Amboss aufwies. In der Anfangsphase des Schweißens wurden die Grenzflächenschichten durch die reibungsverursachte Erwärmung abgeschwächt. Folglich zentrierte sich die zyklische Verformung in diesen abgeschwächten Grenzflächen. Die Annahme des Vorhandenseins der Reibung und ihres Einflusses auf die Wärmeerzeugung wurde mittels mechanischer FEM-Analyse untersucht. Die mikroskopische Analyse des Schweißpunktes lieferte schließlich den Beweis für die Schmelzauslösung an einem Ring um den Schweißpunkt und das anschließende Punktwachstum. Um die räumliche Verteilung der Temperatur und ihre zeitliche Entwicklung in der Schweißzone während des Ultraschallschweißprozesses besser zu verstehen, wurde das thermische Problem numerisch modelliert. Zur Verifizierung der mathematischen Modelle wurden die berechneten Zeitverläufe der Temperatur im Schweißpunktzentrum mit den experimentell ermittelten Werten unter vergleichbaren Bedingungen gegenübergestellt. Es wurde festgestellt, dass nach einer bestimmten Schweißzeit die Temperatur im Schweißzentrum plötzlich anstieg und das Polymer an der Schweißstelle überhitzt und die Zersetzung begann. Es wurde beobachtet, dass der Zeitverlauf der verbrauchten Leistungskurve durch das Schweißgerät einem ähnlichen Muster folgte, wie der Zeitverlauf der Temperatur in der Schweißpunktmitte. Basierend auf dieser Beobachtung wurde ein Steuerungssystem entwickelt. Die zeitliche Ableitung der Schweißleistung wurde in Echtzeit überwacht. Sobald ein kritischer Wert überschritten wurde, wurde die Ultraschallschwingungsamplitude aktiv durch einen Mikrocontroller eingestellt. Bei diesem Ansatz wurde die Temperatur im Schweißpunkt indirekt gesteuert, um während der gesamten Schweißdauer in einem optimalen Bereich zu bleiben. Die Ergebnisse des gesteuerten Schweißprozesses wurden mittels Temperaturmessungen und Computertomographie bewertet. Aus der Studie wurde der Schluss gezogen, dass das leistungsgesteuerte Ultraschall-Punktschweißverfahren eine effiziente und stabile Methode zum automatischen Verbinden von faserverstärkten thermoplastischen Teilen ist.:1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.2 State of the Art 1.3 Statement of the Theses and Methods 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Ultrasonic Welder 2.1.1 Ultrasonic Stack 2.1.2 Working Principle of the Ultrasonic Welder 2.2 Viscoelasticity 2.2.1 Viscoelasticity of Continuous Fibre-Reinforced Laminates 2.2.2 Viscoelastic Heating of CFRTP during the DUS Welding 2.3 Frictional heating at the Weld Interface during the DUS Welding 2.4 Fusion Mechanism during the USW 2.4.1 Contact of the Matrix at the Weld Interface 2.4.2 Healing of the Weld Interface through Autohesion 3 Experimental Analysis of the DUS Process 3.1 Experimental Setup 3.2 Experimental Procedure, Results and Discussions 3.2.1 Weld Progress and Formation Analysis 3.2.2 The Influence of the Amplitude and Static Force on the DUS 3.2.3 Computed Tomography Analysis of the DUS Welded Spots 3.2.4 Influence of the Weld Parameters on the Weld Force at Break 3.2.5 Influence of the Main Process Variables on the Weld Strength 4 Process Modelling and Simulation 4.1 Dynamic Mechanical 3D Finite Element Analysis 4.1.1 Woven Fabric Laminate Models 4.1.2 Laminate Properties and Meshing 4.1.3 FEM Analysis Procedure 4.1.4 Results of the Dynamic Analysis 4.2 Numerical Analysis of the Temperature Temporal and Spatial Development 4.2.1 The Numerical Method 4.2.2 Matrix Loss Modulus Calculation at the Welding Frequency 4.2.3 Model Validation 4.2.4 Analysis of the Spatial and Temporal development of the Temperature 4.2.5 Influence of Uncontrollable Factors on the DUS Process 5 Logical Control Method and Industrialisation 5.1 Process Controlling Hypothesis 5.2 Control System and Instruments 5.3 Experimental Procedure for Analysing the Control System 5.4 Analysis of the Controlled DUS Process 5.5 Control System Validation and Industrialisation 5.6 Automation of the Ultrasonic Spot Welding Process 6 Summary and Outlook 6.1 Conclusions 6.2 Outlook References AppendixThe ultrasonic spot welding of fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites has recently received strong interest among researchers mainly in the fields of aerospace and automotive industries. It offers an efficient solution to join large thermoplastic composite parts through the spot welding approach with a high level of automation. In this study, a new technique for focusing the ultrasonic vibration energy at the desired spot between two mating thermoplastic composite laminates was investigated. In this method, no additional energy directing protrusions between the weldments were required to focus the vibration energy. It was found that by welding the laminates amid an ultrasonic sonotrode and an anvil in which the prior had a larger contact surface with the laminate as the latter, it was possible to generate a localised frictional heating. In the initial phase of the welding, the frictional heating softened the interfacial layers and thus caused the focusing of the strain energy in the weld spot centre. The assumption for the presence of the friction and its influence on the heat generation was investigated by means of finite element method analysis. Microscopic analysis of the weld spot delivered the proof for the melt initiation at a ring around the weld spot and subsequent inwards growth of the weld spot. In order to gain a better understanding of the temperature spatial distribution and its temporal development in the weld zone during the ultrasonic welding process, the thermal problem was analysed using the explicit finite difference method. The mathematical model was verified through a comparison between the calculated temperature curves and the experimentally obtained counterparts. It was found that after a certain weld duration the temperature in the weld centre underwent a sudden increase and caused the overheating and decomposition of the polymer in the weld spot. It was observed that the time trace of the consumed power curve by the welder followed a similar pattern as the time trace of the temperature in the weld spot centre. Based on this observation, a control system was developed accordingly. The time derivative of the weld power was monitored in real time and as soon as it exceeded a critical value, the ultrasonic vibration amplitude was actively adjusted through a microcontroller. In this approach, the temperature in the weld spot was indirectly controlled to remain within an adequate range throughout the welding duration. The results of the controlled welding process were evaluated by means of temperature measurements and computed tomography scans. It was concluded from the study that the power-controlled differential ultrasonic spot welding process could be an efficient method to fusion bond the fibre-reinforced thermoplastic parts in an automated manner.:1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.2 State of the Art 1.3 Statement of the Theses and Methods 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Ultrasonic Welder 2.1.1 Ultrasonic Stack 2.1.2 Working Principle of the Ultrasonic Welder 2.2 Viscoelasticity 2.2.1 Viscoelasticity of Continuous Fibre-Reinforced Laminates 2.2.2 Viscoelastic Heating of CFRTP during the DUS Welding 2.3 Frictional heating at the Weld Interface during the DUS Welding 2.4 Fusion Mechanism during the USW 2.4.1 Contact of the Matrix at the Weld Interface 2.4.2 Healing of the Weld Interface through Autohesion 3 Experimental Analysis of the DUS Process 3.1 Experimental Setup 3.2 Experimental Procedure, Results and Discussions 3.2.1 Weld Progress and Formation Analysis 3.2.2 The Influence of the Amplitude and Static Force on the DUS 3.2.3 Computed Tomography Analysis of the DUS Welded Spots 3.2.4 Influence of the Weld Parameters on the Weld Force at Break 3.2.5 Influence of the Main Process Variables on the Weld Strength 4 Process Modelling and Simulation 4.1 Dynamic Mechanical 3D Finite Element Analysis 4.1.1 Woven Fabric Laminate Models 4.1.2 Laminate Properties and Meshing 4.1.3 FEM Analysis Procedure 4.1.4 Results of the Dynamic Analysis 4.2 Numerical Analysis of the Temperature Temporal and Spatial Development 4.2.1 The Numerical Method 4.2.2 Matrix Loss Modulus Calculation at the Welding Frequency 4.2.3 Model Validation 4.2.4 Analysis of the Spatial and Temporal development of the Temperature 4.2.5 Influence of Uncontrollable Factors on the DUS Process 5 Logical Control Method and Industrialisation 5.1 Process Controlling Hypothesis 5.2 Control System and Instruments 5.3 Experimental Procedure for Analysing the Control System 5.4 Analysis of the Controlled DUS Process 5.5 Control System Validation and Industrialisation 5.6 Automation of the Ultrasonic Spot Welding Process 6 Summary and Outlook 6.1 Conclusions 6.2 Outlook References Appendi

Lightweight stiffened panels : mechanical characterization of emerging fabrication technologies

Tese de doutoramento. Engenharia Mecânica. Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 200

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for New Materials and Components

"Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for Materials and Components presents current and emerging techniques for machining of new materials and restoration of components, as well as surface engineering methods aimed at prolonging the life of industrial systems. It examines contemporary machining processes for new materials, methods of protection and restoration of components, and smart machining processes. • Details a variety of advanced machining processes, new materials joining techniques, and methods to increase machining accuracy • Presents innovative methods for protection and restoration of components primarily from the perspective of remanufacturing and protective surface engineering • Discusses smart machining processes, including computer-integrated manufacturing and rapid prototyping, and smart materials • Provides a comprehensive summary of state-of-the-art in every section and a description of manufacturing methods • Describes the applications in recovery and enhancing purposes and identifies contemporary trends in industrial practice, emphasizing resource savings and performance prolongation for components and engineering systems The book is aimed at a range of readers, including graduate-level students, researchers, and engineers in mechanical, materials, and manufacturing engineering, especially those focused on resource savings, renovation, and failure prevention of components in engineering systems.

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for New Materials and Components

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for Materials and Components presents current and emerging techniques for machining of new materials and restoration of components, as well as surface engineering methods aimed at prolonging the life of industrial systems. It examines contemporary machining processes for new materials, methods of protection and restoration of components, and smart machining processes. • Details a variety of advanced machining processes, new materials joining techniques, and methods to increase machining accuracy • Presents innovative methods for protection and restoration of components primarily from the perspective of remanufacturing and protective surface engineering • Discusses smart machining processes, including computer-integrated manufacturing and rapid prototyping, and smart materials • Provides a comprehensive summary of state-of-the-art in every section and a description of manufacturing methods • Describes the applications in recovery and enhancing purposes and identifies contemporary trends in industrial practice, emphasizing resource savings and performance prolongation for components and engineering systems The book is aimed at a range of readers, including graduate-level students, researchers, and engineers in mechanical, materials, and manufacturing engineering, especially those focused on resource savings, renovation, and failure prevention of components in engineering systems

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for New Materials and Components

"Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for Materials and Components presents current and emerging techniques for machining of new materials and restoration of components, as well as surface engineering methods aimed at prolonging the life of industrial systems. It examines contemporary machining processes for new materials, methods of protection and restoration of components, and smart machining processes. • Details a variety of advanced machining processes, new materials joining techniques, and methods to increase machining accuracy • Presents innovative methods for protection and restoration of components primarily from the perspective of remanufacturing and protective surface engineering • Discusses smart machining processes, including computer-integrated manufacturing and rapid prototyping, and smart materials • Provides a comprehensive summary of state-of-the-art in every section and a description of manufacturing methods • Describes the applications in recovery and enhancing purposes and identifies contemporary trends in industrial practice, emphasizing resource savings and performance prolongation for components and engineering systems The book is aimed at a range of readers, including graduate-level students, researchers, and engineers in mechanical, materials, and manufacturing engineering, especially those focused on resource savings, renovation, and failure prevention of components in engineering systems.

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for New Materials and Components

Remanufacturing and Advanced Machining Processes for Materials and Components presents current and emerging techniques for machining of new materials and restoration of components, as well as surface engineering methods aimed at prolonging the life of industrial systems. It examines contemporary machining processes for new materials, methods of protection and restoration of components, and smart machining processes. • Details a variety of advanced machining processes, new materials joining techniques, and methods to increase machining accuracy • Presents innovative methods for protection and restoration of components primarily from the perspective of remanufacturing and protective surface engineering • Discusses smart machining processes, including computer-integrated manufacturing and rapid prototyping, and smart materials • Provides a comprehensive summary of state-of-the-art in every section and a description of manufacturing methods • Describes the applications in recovery and enhancing purposes and identifies contemporary trends in industrial practice, emphasizing resource savings and performance prolongation for components and engineering systems The book is aimed at a range of readers, including graduate-level students, researchers, and engineers in mechanical, materials, and manufacturing engineering, especially those focused on resource savings, renovation, and failure prevention of components in engineering systems

Impulse-Based Manufacturing Technologies

In impulse-based manufacturing technologies, the energy required to form, join or cut components acts on the workpiece in a very short time and suddenly accelerates workpiece areas to very high velocities. The correspondingly high strain rates, together with inertia effects, affect the behavior of many materials, resulting in technological benefits such as improved formability, reduced localizing and springback, extended possibilities to produce high-quality multi material joints and burr-free cutting. This Special Issue of JMMP presents the current research findings, which focus on exploiting the full potential of these processes by providing a deeper understanding of the technology and the material behavior and detailed knowledge about the sophisticated process and equipment design. The range of processes that are considered covers electromagnetic forming, electrohydraulic forming, adiabatic cutting, forming by vaporizing foil actuators and other impulse-based manufacturing technologies. Papers show significant improvements in the aforementioned processes with regard to: Processes analysis; Measurement technique; Technology development; Materials and modelling; Tools and equipment; Industrial implementation

Vision-based Monitoring System for High Quality TIG Welding

The current study evaluates an automatic system for real-time arc welding quality assessment and defect detection. The system research focuses on the identification of defects that may arise during the welding process by analysing the occurrence of any changes in the visible spectrum of the weld pool and the surrounding area. Currently, the state-of-the-art is very simplistic, involving an operator observing the process continuously. The operator assessment is subjective, and the criteria of acceptance based solely on operator observations can change over time due to the fatigue leading to incorrect classification. Variations in the weld pool are the initial result of the chosen welding parameters and torch position and at the same time the very first indication of the resulting weld quality. The system investigated in this research study consists of a camera used to record the welding process and a processing unit which analyse the frames giving an indication of the quality expected. The categorisation is achieved by employing artificial neural networks and correlating the weld pool appearance with the resulting quality. Six categories denote the resulting quality of a weld for stainless steel and aluminium. The models use images to learn the correlation between the aspect of the weld pool and the surrounding area and the state of the weld as denoted by the six categories, similar to a welder categorisation. Therefore the models learn the probability distribution of images’ aspect over the categories considered

Index to 1986 NASA Tech Briefs, volume 11, numbers 1-4

Short announcements of new technology derived from the R&D activities of NASA are presented. These briefs emphasize information considered likely to be transferrable across industrial, regional, or disciplinary lines and are issued to encourage commercial application. This index for 1986 Tech Briefs contains abstracts and four indexes: subject, personal author, originating center, and Tech Brief Number. The following areas are covered: electronic components and circuits, electronic systems, physical sciences, materials, life sciences, mechanics, machinery, fabrication technology, and mathematics and information sciences