Merde, Merde, Merde: The Testing Effect, Foreign Language Anxiety, and Their Impact on Foreign Language Learning

This experiment examined the effect of foreign language classroom anxiety and assigned learning condition (repeated studying or repeated testing) on participant recall of newly-learned foreign language vocabulary word pairs. Previous research has identified a testing effect, which is a phenomenon where repeated testing is better for a learner’s long-term recall than repeated studying. The hypothesis for this experiment was that the testing effect would occur for students with lower levels of foreign language classroom anxiety but not for students with higher levels of foreign language classroom anxiety. Sixteen participants recruited from Introductory French and Introductory Arabic classrooms at the Claremont Colleges were divided into two learning condition groups, study (SSST) or test (STTT). Participants were also categorized as higher or lower anxiety based on their responses to the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. All participants studied 40 English-foreign language word pairs in Session 1. In Sessions 2 and 3, participants in the SSST condition restudied the word pairs, while participants in the STTT condition took a cued recall test where they attempted to retrieve the foreign language word in response to the English word cue. In Session 4, all participants took a cued recall test. Contrary to the hypothesis, the results showed that the testing effect occurred for participants with higher anxiety but not for participants with lower anxiety. The results of this experiment suggest that repeated testing counteracted the negative effects of anxiety on test performance for higher anxiety foreign language learners. This finding has implications for the educational strategies that should be implemented to lessen students’ foreign language classroom anxiety and potentially increase their recall of foreign language vocabulary in an introductory foreign language classroom at the college level

Variable Semantic Input and Novel First-Language Vocabulary Learning

Vocabulary learning involves mapping a word form to a semantic meaning. An individual asked to learn the Spanish word for “apple,” for example, must map a new word form (manzana) onto the appropriate semantic representation. Previous studies have found that acoustic variability of word forms can improve second language vocabulary acquisition (Barcroft & Sommers, 2005; Sommers & Barcroft, 2007). The current experiments investigated whether variable semantic input could have a similar beneficial effect on first language vocabulary learning. Participants learned low-frequency English vocabulary words and their definitions. Half of the words were shown with the same verbatim definition at each of the six exposures, while the other half appeared with a differently worded, but synonymous, definition at each of the six exposures. After the learning phase, two cued recall tests were administered. In the first test, each word form was supplied and participants were instructed to write its definition. In the second test, participants were given a novel definition of each word and were asked to provide the correct word form for the definition. Younger adults in Experiment 1 were more accurate for words studied in the variable condition, whereas the accuracy scores of older adults in Experiment 2 did not significantly differ by condition. These results are discussed within the TOPRA model framework (Barcroft, 2002) and the associative deficit hypothesis

Exploring the learning burden and decay of foreign language vocabulary knowledge: The effect of part of speech and word length

Research has shown that several intralexical factors affect the learning burden of foreign language vocabulary (e.g., Laufer, 1997 ) and that some accrued lexical knowledge is forgotten. It is often assumed that the lexical items most difficult to acquire are those easiest to forget. However, few studies have provided empirical evidence to support this claim. This study examined the effect of two intralexical factors, part of speech and word length, on the learning burden and decay of intentionally learned foreign language lexical knowledge, as well as the role that learning burden played in the decay process. Forty-eight learners of English studied words of various parts of speech and lengths using flashcard software. Knowledge (form recall and recognition) of target items was assessed immediately after learning and four weeks later. Results of mixed-effects models showed that part of speech and word length have differential impacts on learning burden and decay and that increased burden mitigated loss of form recognition knowledge

The Effect of Hemispheric Dominance on Learning Vocabulary Strategies among Iranian EFL Learners

Vocabulary is one of the skills that students need for success in their studies and as some teachers believe, the students have different vocabulary skills and they use different strategies when they try to recall new vocabularies. The purpose of the study is to investigate the variable impact of two types of vocabulary instruction including context clues, and word parts on adult students' competence in the first place and studying the relationship between the effect of left or right hemispheric dominance on teaching vocabulary leaning strategies. Ninety students from six intact classes were selected for the purpose of this study. The participants consist of female Iranian EFL learners at intermediate level. Each intact class was randomly selected as an experimental group and a control group. Their level of English proficiency was determined on the basis of their scores on the TOEFL proficiency test. After hemispheric dominance questionnaire was administered, the learners in experimental group were divided into right-hemisphere and left-hemisphere group. The experimental group were taught context clue and word part vocabulary strategy while it was not the case for the control group. The results showed that teaching vocabulary strategies play a significant role in developing the level of the learners’ vocabulary knowledge. Furthermore, left-dominant learners had better performance in learning vocabulary after they were taught vocabulary strategies, in comparison to right-dominant learners. As a conclusion, it can be said that investigating hemispheric dominance and learning styles from the aspects of curriculum, teaching process and teachers will contribute significantly to the Iranian Education

The Effect of Hemispheric Dominance on Learning Vocabulary Strategies among Iranian EFL Learners

Vocabulary is one of the skills that students need for success in their studies and as some teachers believe, the students have different vocabulary skills and they use different strategies when they try to recall new vocabularies. The purpose of the study is to investigate the variable impact of two types of vocabulary instruction including context clues, and word parts on adult students' competence in the first place and studying the relationship between the effect of left or right hemispheric dominance on teaching vocabulary leaning strategies. Ninety students from six intact classes were selected for the purpose of this study. The participants consist of female Iranian EFL learners at intermediate level. Each intact class was randomly selected as an experimental group and a control group. Their level of English proficiency was determined on the basis of their scores on the TOEFL proficiency test. After hemispheric dominance questionnaire was administered, the learners in experimental group were divided into right-hemisphere and left-hemisphere group. The experimental group were taught context clue and word part vocabulary strategy while it was not the case for the control group. The results showed that teaching vocabulary strategies play a significant role in developing the level of the learners’ vocabulary knowledge. Furthermore, left-dominant learners had better performance in learning vocabulary after they were taught vocabulary strategies, in comparison to right-dominant learners. As a conclusion, it can be said that investigating hemispheric dominance and learning styles from the aspects of curriculum, teaching process and teachers will contribute significantly to the Iranian Education

The Effect of Hemispheric Dominance on Learning Vocabulary Strategies among Iranian EFL Learners

Vocabulary is one of the skills that students need for success in their studies and as some teachers believe, the students have different vocabulary skills and they use different strategies when they try to recall new vocabularies. The purpose of the study is to investigate the variable impact of two types of vocabulary instruction including context clues, and word parts on adult students' competence in the first place and studying the relationship between the effect of left or right hemispheric dominance on teaching vocabulary leaning strategies. Ninety students from six intact classes were selected for the purpose of this study. The participants consist of female Iranian EFL learners at intermediate level. Each intact class was randomly selected as an experimental group and a control group. Their level of English proficiency was determined on the basis of their scores on the TOEFL proficiency test. After hemispheric dominance questionnaire was administered, the learners in experimental group were divided into right-hemisphere and left-hemisphere group. The experimental group were taught context clue and word part vocabulary strategy while it was not the case for the control group. The results showed that teaching vocabulary strategies play a significant role in developing the level of the learners’ vocabulary knowledge. Furthermore, left-dominant learners had better performance in learning vocabulary after they were taught vocabulary strategies, in comparison to right-dominant learners. As a conclusion, it can be said that investigating hemispheric dominance and learning styles from the aspects of curriculum, teaching process and teachers will contribute significantly to the Iranian Education

Simplified pictorial representations in explicit foreign language vocabulary learning

The main purpose of the two studies reported in this thesis is to examine the potential for simple images to be used in the learning of foreign language vocabulary. The classroom-based research project, consisting of Study 1 and Study 2, was conducted over an academic year of thirty weeks in a Japanese university with two classes of all female participants, set within an existing English language course. A total of 100 English target words were paired with simple pictures, and another 100 English target words were paired with first language (Japanese) translations, using paper-based and electronic materials. The participants experienced the target words in translational form and the target words in simple pictorial form in explicit learning programs consisting of similar instruction, classroom activities and self-learning exercises, involving the recall of target words using the Japanese and pictorial forms as cues. The effect of presenting target vocabulary in simple pictorial form upon vocabulary recall was investigated with pre-test, post-test, and weekly testing data. Participant recall scores were compared between vocabulary experienced in simple pictorial form and vocabulary experienced in translational form, and the rates of recall for individual words were also examined. An understanding of participant responses to learning with target words in pictorial and translational form was gained from attitudinal surveys and focus group discussions. The implications of the images, materials and activities, and the vocabulary program as a whole for teaching and learning were evaluated from vocabulary testing, surveys, focus group discussion data, and from teacher s journals. The results of the studies indicate that presenting target vocabulary in simple pictorial form was not detrimental to recall, and showed a tendency to be more beneficial in comparison to L1 translational form. The concrete/abstract and emotional qualities of the target words, as well as the learner s comprehension of the images including personal agreement with word meaning, were shown to be major influences upon recall. Participant responses to the simple pictures and their usage were generally positive, with the main negative response being the lack of understanding of the images. The studies concluded that using simple pictorial forms does have potential as a supplemental method of teaching and learning English vocabulary explicitly. The images can encourage student interest and motivation, be used in a variety of learning activities including interactive tasks, and provide opportunities for alternative methods of instruction and learning. Additionally, paper-based and electronic instructional materials were found to be comparatively beneficial to vocabulary learning, with factors such as tactility and accessibility being highly influential upon usage. Based on the findings, the studies recommend the use of target vocabulary in simple pictorial form for lower intermediary learners as a supplementary addition to a foreign vocabulary learning program

Digital flashcard L2 Vocabulary learning out-performs traditional flashcards at lower proficiency levels: A mixed-methods study of 139 Japanese university students

[EN] This study investigates the effect of using digital flashcards on L2 vocabulary learning compared to using paper flashcards, at different levels of English proficiency. Although flashcards are generally believed to be one of the most efficient vocabulary study techniques available, little empirical data is available in terms of the comparative effectiveness of digital flashcards, and at different levels of student English proficiency. This study used a mixed-methods experimental design. The between-subjects factor was English Proficiency consisting of three groups: basic, intermediate and advanced. All participants underwent both a digital flashcards treatment and paper flashcards treatment using words from the Academic Words List. For each study mode, the two dependent variables were Immediate, and Delayed Relative Vocabulary Gain. The results of this study indicated that Japanese university students of lower levels of English proficiency have significantly higher vocabulary learning gains when using digital flashcards than when using paper flashcards. Students at higher levels of proficiency performed equally well using both study modes. It appears that by compensating for the gap in metacognitive awareness and effective learning strategies between students of lower and higher levels of language proficiency, digital flashcards may provide the additional support lower-level learners need to match their advanced-level peers in terms of their rate of deliberate vocabulary acquisition.Ashcroft, RJ.; Cvitkovic, R.; Praver, M. (2018). Digital flashcard L2 Vocabulary learning out-performs traditional flashcards at lower proficiency levels: A mixed-methods study of 139 Japanese university students. The EuroCALL Review. 26(1):14-28. doi:10.4995/eurocall.2018.7881SWORD1428261Ashcroft, R. J., & Imrie, A. C. (2014). 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Beyond A Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language,11, 207-223.Hughes, A. (2013). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Hulstijn, J. (2001). Intentional and incidental second language vocabulary learning: A reappraisal of elaboration, rehearsal, and automaticity. In P. J. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 258-286). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Laufer, B., & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing New Words: Does Teaching Have Anything To Do With It? RELC Journal,28(1), 89-108. doi:10.1177/003368829702800106Lees, D. (2013). A Brief Comparison Of Digital- And Self-Made Word Cards For Vocabulary Learning. Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review,18, 59-71. Retrieved June 2, 2017, from kwansei.repo.nii.ac.jp.Nakata, T. (2008). English vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards and computers: implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced learning. ReCALL,20(1), 3-20.Nation, I. S., & Webb, S. A. (2011). Researching and analyzing vocabulary. Boston, MA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.Nation, I. (2003). Effective ways of building vocabulary knowledge. ESL Magazine, 14-15.Nation, I. (2005). Language education: Vocabulary. In I. C. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed., Vol. 6, pp. 494-499). Oxford: Elsevier.Nation, I. (1995). Best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning. EA Journal, 7-15. Retrieved March 8, 2017, from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/1995-Best-practice.pdf.Nikoopour, J., & Kazemi, A. (2014). Vocabulary Learning through Digitized & Non-digitized Flashcards Delivery. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1366-1373.Puentedura, R. R. (2012, August 23). The SAMR Model: Background and Exemplars. 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Incidental Learning of Novel Words in Adult Spanish Speaking Learners of English as a Second Language: Measures of Lexical Configuration and Lexical Engagement and the Effects of Learners’ Individual Differences

Studies on second language (L2) incidental vocabulary learning through reading have mainly focused on learning and testing factual static knowledge of recently learned words, that is, their form and meaning, often in isolation. Thus, little research has explored how through incidental reading newly learned words lexically engage (or interact) with other lexical levels (e.g. semantic and syntactic) and items in the bilingual mental lexicon. Moreover, the effects of learners’ individual differences in incidental vocabulary learning and lexical engagement remain unexplored. The present work, therefore, aimed to contribute to the existing literature by examining the extent of L2 incidental vocabulary learning, not only through measures of lexical configuration (e.g. recognition and recall) but also via measures of lexical engagement (e.g. predicting upcoming linguistic material, making lexical decisions following semantic priming, and parsing temporarily ambiguous (garden-path) sentences) in adult Spanish speaking learners of English in comparison to a monolingual English speaking control group. The effects of phonological working memory (PWM), language aptitude, vocabulary size, and verbal fluency on lexical configuration and lexical engagement of recently learned pseudowords were also explored. Two offline studies on lexical configuration knowledge (e.g. recognition and recall vocabulary post-tests), and three online studies on lexical engagement of spoken form (e.g. visual-world eye-tracking paradigm), meaning (e.g. lexical decision task with priming), and grammatical use (e.g. eye-tracking study with text) of recently learned pseudowords were designed. A training/learning phase preceded the studies where participants read meaningful English sentences containing the target items. The results confirmed that L2 incidental vocabulary learning from reading reaches lexical engagement of form, meaning, and use in recently learned pseudowords. In addition, it corroborated that learners’ individual differences have an effect on lexical configuration and lexical engagement of novel words. The findings contribute to existing theories on L2 vocabulary learning by demonstrating that incidental learning from reading can lead to lexical engagement, and thus to deeper understanding of word knowledge beyond factual memory

Investigating the effect of spaced versus massed practice on vocabulary retention in the EFL classroom

The expression ‘spacing effect’ refers to a commonly observed finding that spacing learning over a period of time leads to better retention than massing learning in a single session. The present study for the first time experimentally compared the relative effectiveness of spaced practice and massed practice on vocabulary learning in authentic EFL classroom settings at tertiary level. This thesis examined the difference in initial learning and longer-term retention between massed and spaced practice at four strength levels of knowledge of vocabulary meaning, namely receptive recognition (easiest), productive recognition, receptive recall, and productive recall (hardest) (Laufer & Goldstein, 2004). Furthermore, this thesis examined the difference in initial learning and retention between word classes, the role of individual factors in spaced learning compared with massed learning, and whether the four levels of vocabulary strength additionally constituted an implicational scale. With these aims, year-one Saudi EFL university students were taught the meaning of 30 new words in a massed learning condition and 30 other new words in a spaced learning condition. In the massed learning condition, each target word was practiced four times in one classroom session. In the spaced learning condition, each target word was practiced once in each of four classroom sessions. The same vocabulary tests were administered immediately after the intervention and four weeks later. Questionnaires were additionally used to gather self-reported individual data. The findings revealed that scores for items that were learnt in the massed condition were not only lower than scores for items that were learnt in the spaced condition but also yielded a greater fall between the immediate and delayed post-tests, although that fall was not significant at the easiest strength level. The benefit of spaced learning over massed learning applied equally to nouns and verbs, with the former’s scores being higher regardless of the time when the test occurred. Vocabulary learning with spaced practice was beneficial to all learners irrespectively of whether they preferred it or not over massed practice. The study agrees with Laufer and Goldstein’s (2004) finding of an implicational scale across the same four degrees of knowledge strength. In addition to further results, implications for second language acquisition and vocabulary learning theory, and English as a foreign language pedagogy are presented