Integrated Applications of Geo-Information in Environmental Monitoring

This book focuses on fundamental and applied research on geo-information technology, notably optical and radar remote sensing and algorithm improvements, and their applications in environmental monitoring. This Special Issue presents ten high-quality research papers covering up-to-date research in land cover change and desertification analyses, geo-disaster risk and damage evaluation, mining area restoration assessments, the improvement and development of algorithms, and coastal environmental monitoring and object targeting. The purpose of this Special Issue is to promote exchanges, communications and share the research outcomes of scientists worldwide and to bridge the gap between scientific research and its applications for advancing and improving society

The Critical West: raw materials and rare earths

This is the final version. Available from Open University Geological Society via the link in this recordCritical raw materials are defined as raw materials that are economically important but vulnerable to supply disruption. They are important now because we mine and use a wider range of elements than ever before. Digital and medical technologies, clean energy and electric vehicles are examples of applications that use the properties of particular materials. These high-technology applications often only need small amounts of raw material that can come from just a few mines in one or two countrie,s and hence the supply risk. The UK South West has the world’s fourth largest deposit of the critical metal, tungsten, being mined at the Drakelands mine in Devon. The South West may also have potential for indium, as well as lithium and tin, which although not defined as ‘critical’ at the moment are also important high-technology raw materials. The UK Natural Environment Research Council funds a research programme called ‘SoS Minerals’ that is helping to find secure and environmentally-friendly solutions to critical metals supply for environmental technologies. Rare earth elements (REE) are perhaps the most famous critical metals. They have many use,s but supply is dominated by China. The geochemistry of REE is controlled by the lanthanide contraction, which results in the 15 REE almost always being associated with each other, but undergoing a smooth fractionation of light from heavy members of the series. The SoS RARE project is researching how light and heavy REE are transported and concentrated, including working on carbonatites in Malawi and Namibia, in order to help exploration companies target the REE that are needed the most. There are many different types of REE deposit to choose from and besides working to help make exploration and processing of carbonatites and alkaline rocks more efficient, SoS RARE is working to understand how REE are concentrated in ion-adsorption clay deposits and how they may be extracted in an environmentally friendly way. If this can be achieved, they could provide a low-impact way to produce REE in the future.The SoS RARE project is funded by NERC grant NE/M011429/1. Camilla Owens’ PhD study is also co-funded by Mkango Resources Ltd

From resource advantage to economic superiority : development and implications of China's rare earth policy

Rare Earth Elements (REE) have become the new strategic economic weapon for the modern age. Used in the manufacturing of products ranging from mobile phones to jet fighter engines, REEs have become the new “oil” of today in terms of economic and strategic importance. Currently, 95% of REEs mined globally are mined in China, giving China a monopoly on the industry. Deng Xiaoping foresaw the importance of REEs in 1992 when he commented: “as there is oil in the Middle East, there is rare earth in China.” Recently, China temporarily stopped exports of REEs to Japan, the EU and the US as an unofficial response to varying political and economic issues. This stoppage raised concerns as to the dependability of China and REE exports. Using the theory of neo-mercantilism, this paper analyzes China’s actions in the REE market and its subsequent economic and political implications. It concludes with a look at how countries are trying to position themselves away from a dependency on China

In search of the forgotten rare earth

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from the Geological Society via the DOI in this recordScandium (Sc) has been called a ‘miracle metal’. When alloyed with aluminium, it produces super-strong but lightweight materials, just right for use in the next generation of aeroplane manufacture and other high-tech applications. By definition, Sc is a member of the 17-strong, rare earth element (REE) family. Like the other REEs, Sc isn’t actually rare in terms of distribution—it can be found throughout Earth’s crust and has a similar abundance to lead—but unlike lead, economic concentrations of Sc are very rare, making it one of the most expensive elements in the world. Indeed, concentrations of Sc are usually so low that Sc is often excluded from geological assessments of REE—it is the forgotten rare earth. But this may be about to change. Several research groups are turning their attention to Sc, using new data from exploration projects to identify a number of promising sources that could be mined. Here we discuss the behaviour of Sc and the distribution of these deposits worldwide. We argue that with improved understanding of how Sc associates with clinopyroxene and how it concentrates within weathering and waste products, such as laterites and red muds, these newly identified deposits could create a virtuous circle of raw materials supply and new high-tech uses

Assessment of crystalline materials for solid state lighting applications: Beyond the rare earth elements

In everyday life, we are continually exposed to different lighting systems, from the home interior to car lights and from public lighting to displays. The basic emission principles on which they are based range from the old incandescent lamps to the well-established compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) and to the more modern Light Emitting Diode (LEDs) that are dominating the actual market and also promise greater development in the coming years. In the LED technology, the key point is the electroluminescence material, but the fundamental role of proper phosphors is sometimes underestimated even when it is essential for an ideal color rendering. In this review, we analyze the main solid-state techniques for lighting applications, paying attention to the fundamental properties of phosphors to be successfully applied. Currently, the most widely used materials are based on rare-earth elements (REEs) whereas Ce:YAG represents the benchmark for white LEDs. However, there are several drawbacks to the REEs’ supply chain and several concerns from an environmental point of view. We analyze these critical issues and review alternative materials that can overcome their use. New compounds with reduced or totally REE free, quantum dots, metal–organic framework, and organic phosphors will be examined with reference to the current state-of-the-art

Lanthanum exerts acute toxicity and histopathological changes in gill and liver tissue of rare minnow (Gobiocypris rarus)

We evaluated the acute toxicity effects of lanthanum (La(III)) on gill and liver of rare minnow (Gobiocypris rarus). The median lethal concentration of La (III) at 96 h was 1.92 mg L-1. Rare minnow were reared in freshwater and exposed to 0.04, 0.08, 0.16, 0.32 and 0.80 mg L-1 La (III) for 21 d. Gill and liver samples were analyzed by light microscopy. The main histopathological changes induced by La (III) in gills were epithelial lifting, filamentary epithelial proliferation,edema, lamellar fusion, desquamation, and necrosis. Histopathological changes induced by La (III) in the liver included dilation of sinusoids, focal congestion, pyknotic nuclei, karyohexis and karyolysis, vacuolar degeneration, and numerous necrosis areas. Hypsometric analysis indicated significant changes in the measures of gill dimensions (average length, width, area), suggesting metabolic disturbance (gas exchange) upon La (III) exposure. The result showed that La (III) severely affects fish gill and liver.</p

Responsible sourcing of critical metals

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Mineralogical Society of America via the DOI in this recordMost critical raw materials, such as the rare earth elements (REE), are starting products in long manufacturing supply chains. It is difficult for consumers, buying cars or smartphones for example, to engage with the original mines and demand environmental and social best practice. Geoscientists can become involved in responsible sourcing because geology is related to environmental impact factors such as energy requirements, resource efficiency, radioactivity and the amount of rock mined. The energy and material inputs and emissions and waste from mining and processing can be quantified using life cycle assessment (LCA). Preliminary LCA studies for REE show little over all difference between ‘hard rocks’ such as carbonatites and easily leachable ion adsorption clays, mainly because of the embodied energy in chemicals used for leaching, dissolution and separation.This work is part funded by the NERC SoS RARE project, NE/M011429/1

A natural laboratory for critical metals investigations in the Mourne Mountains granites

This is the final version. Available from the Royal Irish Academy via the DOI in this record.Certain metals that are vital for many modern technologies occur naturally in the Mourne Mountains Complex of County Down, Northern Ireland. These include niobium, tantalum and the rare earth elements. Using the Tellus geochemistry data and the results of more detailed sampling we have investigated their geological sources in granite bedrock and their dispersion in stream sediments. From this research, an exploration methodology has emerged that can assist in the search for critical metals globally. Planned follow-on studies include investigations of the environmental fate of these metals and the potentially toxic elements with which they are naturally associated.Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investmen