CellMT: A cooperative multithreading library for the Cell/B.E.

The Cell BE processor has proved that heterogeneous multi-core systems can provide a huge computational power with high efficiency for a wide range of applications. The simple design of the computational units and the use of small managed local memories is the key to achieve high efficiency and performance at the same time. However, this simple and efficient hardware design comes at the price of higher code complexity. The code written to run in this kind of processors must deal with several issues such as code vectorization, loop unrolling or the explicit management of local memories. Some of these issues such as vectorization or loop unrolling can be partially solved by the compiler, but the overlapping of data transfer and computation times must be manually addressed by the programmer with techniques such as double buffering that increase the code complexity. In this paper we present a user level threading library called CellMT that effectively hide memory latencies. The concurrent execution of several threads inside each SPU naturally overlaps computation and data transfer times without increasing the code complexity. To prove the suitability and feasibility of our multi-threaded library, we perform an exhaustive performance evaluation with a synthetic benchmark and a real application. The experimental results show that the multithreaded approach can outperform a hand-coded double buffering scheme, with speedups from 0.96x to 3.2x, while maintaining the complexity of a naive buffering scheme.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Energy-efficient data prefetch buffering for low-end embedded processors

An energy-efficient architecture should jointly optimize energy consumption and throughput, as captured by the Energy-Delay-Square Product (ED2P) metric. This paper introduces a prefetch data buffer micro-architecture, which achieves that goal with the aid of software-inserted control words to govern the prefetch process. The proposed architecture is aimed at low-end embedded processors, which, so as to reduce energy consumption, lack a cache-based memory hierarchy. By identifying after compilation which data should be prefetched and modifying the object code, the rate of prefetch misses is reduced. And by pre-computing memory addresses using auxiliary software after compilation and modifying the object code, address computation by hardware at run time is avoided, reducing pipeline stalls and, thus, improving throughput. Additionally in the case of branches, by prefetching two data items at any one time, alternative instruction outcomes are anticipated. The paper contains results from running a range of well-known and representative benchmarks on the proposed architecture. There was an improvement of 6−20% compared to an unbuffered architecture in execution times when tested over those seven benchmarks. Furthermore, the average ED2P for the buffered architecture when normalized against the same architecture without buffering was found to vary between 54% and 90% according to benchmarking, though there is a cost in code size increase. That is to say, for the benchmarks tested there was a net energy efficiency improvement of between 10% and 46% in comparison with the equivalent unbuffered architecture with a lower area overhead

Software caching techniques and hardware optimizations for on-chip local memories

Despite the fact that the most viable L1 memories in processors are caches, on-chip local memories have been a great topic of consideration lately. Local memories are an interesting design option due to their many benefits: less area occupancy, reduced energy consumption and fast and constant access time. These benefits are especially interesting for the design of modern multicore processors since power and latency are important assets in computer architecture today. Also, local memories do not generate coherency traffic which is important for the scalability of the multicore systems. Unfortunately, local memories have not been well accepted in modern processors yet, mainly due to their poor programmability. Systems with on-chip local memories do not have hardware support for transparent data transfers between local and global memories, and thus ease of programming is one of the main impediments for the broad acceptance of those systems. This thesis addresses software and hardware optimizations regarding the programmability, and the usage of the on-chip local memories in the context of both single-core and multicore systems. Software optimizations are related to the software caching techniques. Software cache is a robust approach to provide the user with a transparent view of the memory architecture; but this software approach can suffer from poor performance. In this thesis, we start optimizing traditional software cache by proposing a hierarchical, hybrid software-cache architecture. Afterwards, we develop few optimizations in order to speedup our hybrid software cache as much as possible. As the result of the software optimizations we obtain that our hybrid software cache performs from 4 to 10 times faster than traditional software cache on a set of NAS parallel benchmarks. We do not stop with software caching. We cover some other aspects of the architectures with on-chip local memories, such as the quality of the generated code and its correspondence with the quality of the buffer management in local memories, in order to improve performance of these architectures. Therefore, we run our research till we reach the limit in software and start proposing optimizations on the hardware level. Two hardware proposals are presented in this thesis. One is about relaxing alignment constraints imposed in the architectures with on-chip local memories and the other proposal is about accelerating the management of local memories by providing hardware support for the majority of actions performed in our software cache.Malgrat les memòries cau encara son el component basic pel disseny del subsistema de memòria, les memòries locals han esdevingut una alternativa degut a les seves característiques pel que fa a l’ocupació d’àrea, el seu consum energètic i el seu rendiment amb un temps d’accés ràpid i constant. Aquestes característiques son d’especial interès quan les properes arquitectures multi-nucli estan limitades pel consum de potencia i la latència del subsistema de memòria.Les memòries locals pateixen de limitacions respecte la complexitat en la seva programació, fet que dificulta la seva introducció en arquitectures multi-nucli, tot i els avantatges esmentats anteriorment. Aquesta tesi presenta un seguit de solucions basades en programari i maquinari específicament dissenyat per resoldre aquestes limitacions.Les optimitzacions del programari estan basades amb tècniques d'emmagatzematge de memòria cau suportades per llibreries especifiques. La memòria cau per programari és un sòlid mètode per proporcionar a l'usuari una visió transparent de l'arquitectura, però aquest enfocament pot patir d'un rendiment deficient. En aquesta tesi, es proposa una estructura jeràrquica i híbrida. Posteriorment, desenvolupem optimitzacions per tal d'accelerar l’execució del programari que suporta el disseny de la memòria cau. Com a resultat de les optimitzacions realitzades, obtenim que el nostre disseny híbrid es comporta de 4 a 10 vegades més ràpid que una implementació tradicional de memòria cau sobre un conjunt d’aplicacions de referencia, com son els “NAS parallel benchmarks”.El treball de tesi inclou altres aspectes de les arquitectures amb memòries locals, com ara la qualitat del codi generat i la seva correspondència amb la qualitat de la gestió de memòria intermèdia en les memòries locals, per tal de millorar el rendiment d'aquestes arquitectures. La tesi desenvolupa propostes basades estrictament en el disseny de nou maquinari per tal de millorar el rendiment de les memòries locals quan ja no es possible realitzar mes optimitzacions en el programari. En particular, la tesi presenta dues propostes de maquinari: una relaxa les restriccions imposades per les memòries locals respecte l’alineament de dades, l’altra introdueix maquinari específic per accelerar les operacions mes usuals sobre les memòries locals

Exploiting software transactional memory in the context of asymmetric architectures

Orientador: Paulo Cesar CentoducatteTese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de ComputaçãoResumo: A adoção dos microprocessadores com múltiplos núcleos de execução pela indústria semicondutora tem criado uma crescente necessidade por novas linguagens, metodologias e ferramentas que tornem o desenvolvimento de sistemas concorrentes mais rápido, eficiente e acessível aos programadores de todos os níveis. Uma das principais dificuldades em programação concorrente com memória compartilhada é garantir a correta sincronização do código, evitando assim condições de corrida que podem levar o sistema a um estado inconsistente. A sincronização tem sido tradicionalmente realizada através de métodos baseados em travas, reconhecidos amplamente por serem de difícil uso e pelas anomalias causadas. Um novo mecanismo, conhecido como memória transacional (TM), tem sido alvo de muita pesquisa recentemente e promete simplificar o processo de sincronização, além de possibilitar maior oportunidade para extração de paralelismo e consequente desempenho. O cerne desta tese é formado por três trabalhos desenvolvidos no contexto dos sistemas de memória transacional em software (STM). Primeiramente, apresentamos uma implementação de STM para processadores assimétricos, usando a arquitetura Cell/B.E. como foco. Como principal resultado, constatamos que o uso de sistemas transacionais em arquiteturas assimétricas também é promissor, principalmente pelo fator escalabilidade. No segundo trabalho, adotamos uma abordagem diferente e sugerimos um sistema de STM especialmente voltado para o domínio de jogos computacionais. O principal motivo que nos levou nesta direção é o baixo desempenho das implementações atuais de STM. Um estudo de caso conduzido a partir de um jogo complexo mostra a eficácia do sistema proposto. Finalmente, apresentamos pela primeira vez uma caracterização do consumo de energia de um sistema de STM considerado estado da arte. Além da caracterização, também propomos uma técnica para redução do consumo em casos de alta contenção. Resultados obtidos a partir dessa técnica revelam ganhos de até 87% no consumo de energiaAbstract: The shift towards multicore processors taken by the semiconductor industry has initiated an era in which new languages, methodologies and tools are of paramount importance to the development of efficient concurrent systems that can be built in a timely way by all kinds of programmers. One of the main obstacles faced by programmers when dealing with shared memory programming concerns the use of synchronization mechanisms so as to avoid race conditions that could possibly lead the system to an inconsistent state. Synchronization has been traditionally achieved by means of locks (or variations thereof), widely known by their anomalies and hard-to-get-it-right facets. A new mechanism, known as transactional memory (TM), has recently been the focus of a lot of research and shows potential to simplify code synchronization as well as delivering more parallelism and, therefore, better performance. This thesis presents three works focused on different aspects of software transactional memory (STM) systems. Firstly, we show an STM implementation for asymmetric processors, focusing on the architecture of Cell/B.E. As an important result, we find out that memory transactions are indeed promising for asymmetric architectures, specially due to their scalability. Secondly, we take a different approach to STM implementation by devising a system specially targeted at computer games. The decision was guided by poor performance figures usually seen on current STM implementations. We also conduct a case study using a complex game that effectively shows the system's efficiency. Finally, we present the energy consumption characterization of a state-of-the-art STM for the first time. Based on the observed characterization, we also propose a technique aimed at reducing energy consumption in highly contended scenarios. Our results show that the technique is indeed effective in such cases, improving the energy consumption by up to 87%DoutoradoSistemas de ComputaçãoDoutor em Ciência da Computaçã