Influence of packing density and surface roughness of vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes on adhesive properties of gecko-inspired mimetics.

We have systematically studied the macroscopic adhesive properties of vertically aligned nanotube arrays with various packing density and roughness. Using a tensile setup in shear and normal adhesion, we find that there exists a maximum packing density for nanotube arrays to have adhesive properties. Too highly packed tubes do not offer intertube space for tube bending and side-wall contact to surfaces, thus exhibiting no adhesive properties. Likewise, we also show that the surface roughness of the arrays strongly influences the adhesion properties and the reusability of the tubes. Increasing the surface roughness of the array strengthens the adhesion in the normal direction, but weakens it in the shear direction. Altogether, these results allow progress toward mimicking the gecko's vertical mobility.The authors acknowledge funding from the EC project Technotubes.This is the accepted manuscript. The final version is available at http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/am507822b

Biomechanics of the fibrillar adhesive system in insects

Many animals are able to scale smooth surfaces using adhesive structures on their feet. These organs are either soft pads with a relatively smooth surface or dense arrays of microscopic adhesive hairs with both designs having independently evolved in diverse taxa of arthropods and vertebrates. Biological adhesive pads out-perform conventional adhesives in many respects, making them important models for biomimetics. Hairy pads have attracted particular attention, because it has become feasible to fabricate similar synthetic microstructures. Nevertheless, the detailed performance and functional properties have not been characterised for any natural fibrillar adhesive system, and many fundamental aspects are still not understood. The aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate the fibrillar adhesive system of leaf beetles as a model. To investigate the functional implications of hairy pad design, the attachment performance between hairy pads of the leaf beetle Gastrophysa viridula and smooth pads of stick insects (Carausius morosus) was compared. Adhesive and frictional stresses were found to be similar in smooth and hairy pads, inconsistent with contact splitting theory, which predicts higher adhesive stresses for fibrillar adhesives. Hairy pads showed a greater direction-dependence of friction forces than smooth pads, confirming the importance of the asymmetric design of individual setae for effortless detachment. Experiments with contaminating particles also showed that hairy pads removed contamination more rapidly and efficiently than smooth pads. Self-cleaning ability had not been previously documented for adhesive organs of insects. To investigate to what extent the hairy system is able to compensate for surface roughness, whole-body attachment forces were measured for varying roughness levels. Attachment was reduced for all length scales of surface roughness, but in particular for asperity sizes smaller than the diameter of individual seta tips. Leaf beetles possess adhesive pads on three tarsal segments, which vary in setal morphology. However, the functional implications of this variation are unknown. The mechanical and adhesive properties of individual pads were therefore tested and their use during climbing observed. Proximal pads were shown to be stiffer than distal pads, conferring stability during pushing. In contrast, the softer distal pads allowed better attachment to rough surfaces. Hence the morphological variation is explained by an effective division of labour between the pads. To investigate an extreme example of pushing in a hairy system, pad use was studied during jumping in flea beetles. The pushing forces needed during take-off were exclusively produced by the proximal pads, again confirming the division of labour. To characterise the effects of different hair morphologies and to understand how individual setae contribute to array and whole-animal performance, single hair forces were measured using a glass capillary cantilever. Male-specific discoidal hairs were shown to be both stiffer and more adhesive than pointed and spatula-tipped setae, likely affecting overall pad stability and attachment. This thesis has shown that hairy pads are similar to smooth pads in the magnitude of adhesive stress supported yet outperform them in detachability and self-cleaning. It was also demonstrated that there are considerable differences in design and performance even within setal arrays of the same insect, indicating the limitations of general models of fibrillar adhesion and underlining the importance of specialised adaptations.Funded by research grants from the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council and the Cambridge Isaac Newton Trust

Functional surface microstructures inspired by nature : From adhesion and wetting principles to sustainable new devices

In the course of evolution nature has arrived at startling materials solutions to ensure survival. Investigations into biological surfaces, ranging from plants, insects and geckos to aquatic animals, have inspired the design of intricate surface patterns to create useful functionalities. This paper reviews the fundamental interaction mechanisms of such micropatterns with liquids, solids, and soft matter such as skin for control of wetting, self-cleaning, anti-fouling, adhesion, skin adherence, and sensing. Compared to conventional chemical strategies, the paradigm of micropatterning enables solutions with superior resource efficiency and sustainability. Associated applications range from water management and robotics to future health monitoring devices. We finally provide an overview of the relevant patterning methods as an appendix

Functional surface microstructures inspired by nature – From adhesion and wetting principles to sustainable new devices

In the course of evolution nature has arrived at startling materials solutions to ensure survival. Investigations into biological surfaces, ranging from plants, insects and geckos to aquatic animals, have inspired the design of intricate surface patterns to create useful functionalities. This paper reviews the fundamental interaction mechanisms of such micropatterns with liquids, solids, and soft matter such as skin for control of wetting, self-cleaning, anti-fouling, adhesion, skin adherence, and sensing. Compared to conventional chemical strategies, the paradigm of micropatterning enables solutions with superior resource efficiency and sustainability. Associated applications range from water management and robotics to future health monitoring devices. We finally provide an overview of the relevant patterning methods as an appendix

Fabrication and Analysis of Bio-Inspired Smart Surfaces

This work introduces novel techniques for the fabrication of bio-inspired hierarchical micro- and nanostructures. The enormous potential of these techniques is demonstrated by presenting a synthetic gecko-like adhesive matching the adhesion and self-cleaning of geckos very closely and a nanofur which is superhydrophobic, superoleophilic, underwater air-retaining, and even self-healing when surface treated

Toward Micro Wall-Climbing Robots Using Biomimetic Fibrillar Adhesives

Climbing is a challenging task for autonomous mobile robots primarily due to requirements for agile locomotion, and high maneuverability as well as robust and efficient attachment and detachment. A novel miniature wall-climbing robot is proposed. The robot is adapted for the wall-climbing task by taking advantage of down scaling and its low design. Challenges encountered during robot miniaturization and performances of the robot are reported. The miniature robot prototype proved to be able to climb on inclined surfaces with a slope of up to 90° at a speed of 3.3mm/s. It is equipped with sensors that enable it to avoid obstacles, follow walls and detect free-falls. It can be controlled by remote control or act autonomously. Animals, such as Geckos, have developed amazing climbing ability through micro- and nano-fibers on their feet. These structures have inspired the study of dry adhesion and the design of synthetic fibrillar pads presented in the paper