A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency

Algorithmic systems are increasingly being used as part of decision-making processes in both the public and private sectors, with potentially significant consequences for individuals, organisations and societies as a whole. Algorithmic systems in this context refer to the combination of algorithms, data and the interface process that together determine the outcomes that affect end users. Many types of decisions can be made faster and more efficiently using algorithms. A significant factor in the adoption of algorithmic systems for decision-making is their capacity to process large amounts of varied data sets (i.e. big data), which can be paired with machine learning methods in order to infer statistical models directly from the data. The same properties of scale, complexity and autonomous model inference however are linked to increasing concerns that many of these systems are opaque to the people affected by their use and lack clear explanations for the decisions they make. This lack of transparency risks undermining meaningful scrutiny and accountability, which is a significant concern when these systems are applied as part of decision-making processes that can have a considerable impact on people's human rights (e.g. critical safety decisions in autonomous vehicles; allocation of health and social service resources, etc.). This study develops policy options for the governance of algorithmic transparency and accountability, based on an analysis of the social, technical and regulatory challenges posed by algorithmic systems. Based on a review and analysis of existing proposals for governance of algorithmic systems, a set of four policy options are proposed, each of which addresses a different aspect of algorithmic transparency and accountability: 1. awareness raising: education, watchdogs and whistleblowers; 2. accountability in public-sector use of algorithmic decision-making; 3. regulatory oversight and legal liability; and 4. global coordination for algorithmic governance

selected case studies from the choice factory

A inovação tecnológica e digital, o surgimento do marketing digital e a generalização da utilização de dados para fins comerciais têm permitido que o marketing comportamental orientado para os dados esteja progressivamente mais presente no sector da publicidade. Devido à vontade das empresas e profissionais de aumentar as suas vendas, os marketers e os publicitários apresentam técnicas publicitárias baseadas em conclusões provenientes da ciência comportamental que podem não ser tão inofensivas como parecem. Como tal, os consumidores podem vir a ser vítimas de publicidade personalizada, enganosa ou agressiva, através de, por exemplo, violações do RGPD ou mesmo da utilização de padrões obscuros, que podem constituir práticas comerciais desleais ao abrigo da DPCD. Como Vender Mais, de Richard Shotton, autor e consultor, é um livro em que o autor emprega preconceitos comportamentais para sugerir técnicas práticas de marketing com o objetivo de convencer os consumidores a comprar mais. Posto isto, esta dissertação analisa quatro dessas técnicas de marketing e publicidade, sugeridas por Richard Shotton, para inferir se são inofensivas para o consumidor ou se, de facto, poderão constituir práticas ilícitas ao abrigo da DPCD. A análise foi dividida em três partes. Em primeiro lugar, esta dissertação reconhece e faz um esboço geral dos recentes desenvolvimentos legislativos no quadro da UE em matéria de proteção do consumidor que podem prevenir eventuais abusos na área do marketing e publicidade, fornecendo, em simultâneo, uma análise do conceito de marketing comportamental, da sua influência e do entendimento dos marketers sobre este tema. Em segundo lugar, uma vez que, de acordo com orientações recentes fornecidas pela CE sobre a interpretação e aplicação da DPCD e da própria DPCD, há necessidade de efetuar apreciações caso a caso, para garantir a segurança jurídica, esta dissertação pretende fazêlo, analisando as técnicas fornecidas no livro Como Vender Mais, à luz do contexto legal comunitário existente e explicando como algumas destas práticas comerciais poderiam ser consideradas desleais e, por isso, proibidas ao abrigo da DPCD. Finalmente, são feitos alguns comentários acerca das declarações de Richard Shotton sobre a ética aplicada à utilização da ciência comportamental para influenciar consumidores.Technological and digital innovation, the emergence of digital marketing and the widespread of data use for commercial purposes have allowed data-driven behavioural marketing to be progressively more present in the advertising sector. Due to businesses’ demand to sell more, marketers and advertisers come up with advertising techniques based on behavioural science findings that may not be as harmless as them seem. Hence, consumers may fall victim to over personalised, misleading or aggressive advertisements, for instance through violations of the GDPR or even the use of dark patterns, that may constitute unfair commercial practices under the UCPD. The Choice Factory, by Richard Shotton, bestselling author and consultant, is a book in which the author employs behavioural biases to suggest practical marketing techniques to sway consumers into buying more. Therefore, this dissertation analyses four of those marketing and adverting techniques, suggested by Richard Shotton, to further explore if they are harmless to the consumer or if, in fact, they are unlawful under the UCPD. The analysis is divided in three parts. Firstly, this dissertation acknowledges and makes an overview of recent developments in the EU’s legal framework regarding consumer protection that could prevent eventual marketing and advertising abuses towards consumers, while also providing an overview of behavioural marketing, its influence and the marketers’ perspective of it. Secondly, since according to recent Guidance provided by the EC on the interpretation and application of the UCPD and the UCPD itself, case-by-case assessments are required to ensure legal certainty, this dissertation intends to do precisely that, analysing the techniques provided in The Choice Factory in light of the existing EU’s legal framework and explaining how some of these commercial practices could be considered unfair and, therefore, prohibited under the UCPD. Lastly, some comments are made on the statements by Richard Shotton on the ethics regarding using behavioural science to influence consumers

Distributed cognition and businesses as 'mental institutions'

This thesis explores distributed cognition within the context of business and argues that businesses can be considered ‘mental institutions’. It therefore defends a liberal view of cognition, recognising the integration of stakeholders within a larger business structure that contains multiple cognitive schemas that conduct, constrain, and amplify one’s thoughts and affectivity in relation to the organisation. The aim of this thesis is therefore to broaden the scope of investigation regarding the socially extended mind and demonstrate the real-world applicability of these discussions to business consultancy. Following a revision of how the ‘mental institution’ should be considered and a deconstruction of the concept of ‘business’, the thesis picks out six institutional artefacts and structures that are common features of business organisations. These are logos, products, shops, offices, hierarchies, and narratives. Mental business institutions are designed with cognition in mind, and thus these institutional features can become integral parts of thought for both employees within business organisations and external consumers. Chapters individually explore the various ways we can become coupled to these artefacts and structures as internal or external stakeholders, and thus integrated within the cognitive niche of the business institution. Finally, an empirical study of a large UK-based utility company provides an example of how one can investigate the collaborative efforts of employees within an organisation through the lens of distributed cognition. Ultimately, an application of distributed cognition and mental institutions to business within this text brings to fruition new additional conceptual resources for management and marketing studies

Learners’ Experience of Presence in Virtual Worlds

This thesis explores participants’ experiences of presence in virtual worlds as a specific case of mediated environments, and the factors that support that experience of presence, with the aim of developing practice when using these technologies in learning and teaching. The thesis begins with a framework that was created to bring together concepts from a range of disciplines that describe presence and factors that contribute to presence. Organising categories within the framework were drawn from a blend of Activity Theory and Communities of Practice. Five case studies in Second Life (preceded by a pilot study employing webconferencing) were conducted in order to investigate learners’ experiences in these environments. Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from these cases. The data from the separate cases were analysed using a cross-case synthesis and the role of presence, and the factors that support it, were identified. An additional strand of investigation established a typology of different forms of resistance by students to learning in virtual worlds. The findings of the study were that an experience of presence is strongly linked to students’ satisfaction with the learning activity. This experience of presence was more linked to students’ preparedness or ability to engage with the environment than with technological limitations. Some students’ resistance to learning in virtual worlds were informed by values they held about technology, but others appeared to display an inability to experience embodiment through their avatar. The experience of presence appeared to develop over time. This can be interpreted as stages in students’ development of a virtual body image, body schema and virtual identity. Different learning activities are more appropriate to different stages in this development. The thesis concludes with a suggested model for supporting students’ development of presence. The implications of these findings for educators and for further research are discussed

An evaluation of the role of flexible methods of programme delivery in social work education in widening access to professional qualification

This research evaluates the role of flexible methods of delivering social work education in widening access to professional qualification. It examines: • The personal profiles of applicants on flexible/part-time social work programmes and compares these with those of full-time students • Whether opportunities for flexible study increase the diversity of applicants to pre-registration Masters level programmes • The kinds of flexibility that increase the diversity of applicants to pre-registration social work programmes The research method is informed by reflexivity, incorporating all aspects of knowledge and experience providing depth to interpretation of data. Data on 162 social work students registered on a postgraduate pre-registration programme was collected over four years and examined using a sequential exploratory research design. Data was collected from three main sources: HEI cohort statistics, questionnaires and individual interviews with eight selected students. Findings suggest: Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) students enter social work education through social care for career progression in the absence of alternative employment; knowledgeable and experienced practitioners study for qualifications that allow them to continue in their role; opportunity, rather than planning, facilitates access to study; and values promoted within social work education conflict with those experienced in the workplace. Limited diversity was identified within students on the flexible route associated with age, personal situation, disability and distance from the HEI. These students represented two distinct groups, polarised in terms of experience, knowledge and aspirations. Trends and patterns were identified across and within the whole student group: BME students were multiply-disadvantaged, travelling further, earning less, and facing limited opportunity; and numbers of younger, White students were increasing. Findings indicate a need to broaden notions of flexibility in programme structure and delivery. Recommendations include using a modular approach; delivery methods that facilitate local study; and establishing a “whole-career” approach to social work education

Exploring care relations in later life:disentangling notions of care and choice

The experience of later life varies widely and is often framed in terms of the active lifestyles of the Third Age and the frailty and abjection of the Fourth Age. This thesis sought to understand how the concepts of care and choice are enacted, experienced and interrelated in the context of both informal and formal care in later life and how older people themselves, their families and significant others understand and experience these concepts. The discourse of personalisation that dominates care services has led to an emphasis on individual choice, control and independence so that those in need of care are faced with what has been described as the ‘logic of choice’, a focus on individual responsibility rather than care. Adopting a Feminist Foucauldian theoretical approach and drawing on Tronto’s (1993) ethic of care, this thesis explores the experiences of older people and their informal carers through dialogical narrative analysis. The stories begin with the recognition by individuals that there is a need for care and how this need is met through negotiations with families and significant others. As needs increase the physical and logistical limits of informal care by individuals are reached, often leading to a need to ‘choose’ formal care. Rather than impacting solely on the care recipient, formal care is shown as being an experience that is shared with informal carers. Indeed, the participants depict how informal care continues alongside formal care and how the boundaries between them become blurred. I argue that a binary division between actively making choices and being a passive recipient are not appropriate to understandings of care. By disentangling the notions of care and choice this thesis explores the extent to which these concepts are relevant to the experience of older people in specific care situations

Proceeding: 3rd Java International Nursing Conference 2015 “Harmony of Caring and Healing Inquiry for Holistic Nursing Practice; Enhancing Quality of Care”, Semarang, 20-21 August 2015

This is the proceeding of the 3rd Java International Nursing Conference 2015 organized by School of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Diponegoro University, in collaboration with STIKES Kendal. The conference was held on 20-21 August 2015 in Semarang, Indonesia. The conference aims to enable educators, students, practitioners and researchers from nursing, medicine, midwifery and other health sciences to disseminate and discuss evidence of nursing education, research, and practices to improve the quality of care. This conference also provides participants opportunities to develop their professional networks, learn from other colleagues and meet leading personalities in nursing and health sciences. The 3rd JINC 2015 was comprised of keynote lectures and concurrent submitted oral presentations and poster sessions. The following themes have been chosen to be the focus of the conference: (a) Multicenter Science: Physiology, Biology, Chemistry, etc. in Holistic Nursing Practice, (b) Complementary Therapy in Nursing and Complementary, Alternative Medicine: Alternative Medicine (Herbal Medicine), Complementary Therapy (Cupping, Acupuncture, Yoga, Aromatherapy, Music Therapy, etc.), (c) Application of Inter-professional Collaboration and Education: Education Development in Holistic Nursing, Competencies of Holistic Nursing, Learning Methods and Assessments, and (d) Application of Holistic Nursing: Leadership & Management, Entrepreneurship in Holistic Nursing, Application of Holistic Nursing in Clinical and Community Settings