Design of a Hand Held Minimally Invasive Lung Tumour Localization Device

Lung cancer is the leading type of cancer that causes death. If diagnosed, the treatment of choice is surgical resection of the tumour. Traditionally, a surgeon feels for the presence of a tumour in open thoracic surgery. However, a minimally invasive approach is desired. A major problem presented by the minimally invasive approach is the localization of the tumour. This project describes the design, analysis, and experimental validation of a novel minimally invasive instrument for lung tumour localization. The instrument end effector is a two degree of freedom lung tissue palpator. It allows for optimal tissue palpation to increase useful sensor feedback by ensuring sensor contact, and prevents tissue damage by uniformly distributing pressure on the tissue with an upper bound force. Finite element analysis was used extensively to guide the design process. The mechanism is actuated using high strength tungsten cables attached to controlled motors. Heat treatment experiments were undertaken with stainless steel alloy 440C for use in the design, achieving a device factor of safety of 4. This factor of safety is based on a 20 N force on the end effector — the approximate weight of a human lung. The design was prototyped and validation experiments were carried out to assess its articulation and its load carrying capacity. Up to 10 N of force was applied to the prototype. Issues to resolve in the current design include cable extension effects and the existence of joint inflection. The end effector was also designed to allow the inclusion of ultrasound, tactile, and kinaesthetic sensors. It is hypothesized that a plurality of sensors will increase the likelihood of positive tumour localization. These sensors, combined with the presented mechanical design, form the basis for research in robotics-assisted palpation. A proof of concept control system is presented for automated palpation

Haptics: Science, Technology, Applications

This open access book constitutes the proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human Haptic Sensing and Touch Enabled Computer Applications, EuroHaptics 2022, held in Hamburg, Germany, in May 2022. The 36 regular papers included in this book were carefully reviewed and selected from 129 submissions. They were organized in topical sections as follows: haptic science; haptic technology; and haptic applications

Realistic tool-tissue interaction models for surgical simulation and planning

Surgical simulators present a safe and potentially effective method for surgical training, and can also be used in pre- and intra-operative surgical planning. Realistic modeling of medical interventions involving tool-tissue interactions has been considered to be a key requirement in the development of high-fidelity simulators and planners. The soft-tissue constitutive laws, organ geometry and boundary conditions imposed by the connective tissues surrounding the organ, and the shape of the surgical tool interacting with the organ are some of the factors that govern the accuracy of medical intervention planning.\ud \ud This thesis is divided into three parts. First, we compare the accuracy of linear and nonlinear constitutive laws for tissue. An important consequence of nonlinear models is the Poynting effect, in which shearing of tissue results in normal force; this effect is not seen in a linear elastic model. The magnitude of the normal force for myocardial tissue is shown to be larger than the human contact force discrimination threshold. Further, in order to investigate and quantify the role of the Poynting effect on material discrimination, we perform a multidimensional scaling study. Second, we consider the effects of organ geometry and boundary constraints in needle path planning. Using medical images and tissue mechanical properties, we develop a model of the prostate and surrounding organs. We show that, for needle procedures such as biopsy or brachytherapy, organ geometry and boundary constraints have more impact on target motion than tissue material parameters. Finally, we investigate the effects surgical tool shape on the accuracy of medical intervention planning. We consider the specific case of robotic needle steering, in which asymmetry of a bevel-tip needle results in the needle naturally bending when it is inserted into soft tissue. We present an analytical and finite element (FE) model for the loads developed at the bevel tip during needle-tissue interaction. The analytical model explains trends observed in the experiments. We incorporated physical parameters (rupture toughness and nonlinear material elasticity) into the FE model that included both contact and cohesive zone models to simulate tissue cleavage. The model shows that the tip forces are sensitive to the rupture toughness. In order to model the mechanics of deflection of the needle, we use an energy-based formulation that incorporates tissue-specific parameters such as rupture toughness, nonlinear material elasticity, and interaction stiffness, and needle geometric and material properties. Simulation results follow similar trends (deflection and radius of curvature) to those observed in macroscopic experimental studies of a robot-driven needle interacting with gels

Vision-Based Autonomous Control in Robotic Surgery

Robotic Surgery has completely changed surgical procedures. Enhanced dexterity, ergonomics, motion scaling, and tremor filtering, are well-known advantages introduced with respect to classical laparoscopy. In the past decade, robotic plays a fundamental role in Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) in which the da Vinci robotic system (Intuitive Surgical Inc., Sunnyvale, CA) is the most widely used system for robot-assisted laparoscopic procedures. Robots also have great potentiality in Microsurgical applications, where human limits are crucial and surgical sub-millimetric gestures could have enormous benefits with motion scaling and tremor compensation. However, surgical robots still lack advanced assistive control methods that could notably support surgeon's activity and perform surgical tasks in autonomy for a high quality of intervention. In this scenario, images are the main feedback the surgeon can use to correctly operate in the surgical site. Therefore, in view of the increasing autonomy in surgical robotics, vision-based techniques play an important role and can arise by extending computer vision algorithms to surgical scenarios. Moreover, many surgical tasks could benefit from the application of advanced control techniques, allowing the surgeon to work under less stressful conditions and performing the surgical procedures with more accuracy and safety. The thesis starts from these topics, providing surgical robots the ability to perform complex tasks helping the surgeon to skillfully manipulate the robotic system to accomplish the above requirements. An increase in safety and a reduction in mental workload is achieved through the introduction of active constraints, that can prevent the surgical tool from crossing a forbidden region and similarly generate constrained motion to guide the surgeon on a specific path, or to accomplish robotic autonomous tasks. This leads to the development of a vision-based method for robot-aided dissection procedure allowing the control algorithm to autonomously adapt to environmental changes during the surgical intervention using stereo images elaboration. Computer vision is exploited to define a surgical tools collision avoidance method that uses Forbidden Region Virtual Fixtures by rendering a repulsive force to the surgeon. Advanced control techniques based on an optimization approach are developed, allowing multiple tasks execution with task definition encoded through Control Barrier Functions (CBFs) and enhancing haptic-guided teleoperation system during suturing procedures. The proposed methods are tested on a different robotic platform involving da Vinci Research Kit robot (dVRK) and a new microsurgical robotic platform. Finally, the integration of new sensors and instruments in surgical robots are considered, including a multi-functional tool for dexterous tissues manipulation and different visual sensing technologies

Multi-Finger Haptic Devices Integrating Miniature Short-Stroke Actuators

The omnipresence of electronic devices in our everyday life goes together with a trend that makes us always more immersed during their utilization. By immersion, we mean that during the development of a new product, it is more and more required to stimulate several senses of the user so as to make the product more attractive. The sense of touch does not escape the rule and is more and more considered. Definitely democratized by its integration in smart phones with touchscreens, the haptic feedback allows enhancing the human-machine interactions in many ways. For instance by improving the comfort of use of a button through the modification of its force feedback. It can also offer an interactive experience during the manipulation of digital information and even improve the communication, particularly through the internet and for blind people, with the introduction of non-verbal signals. For these reasons, the present thesis focuses on the conception of multi-finger haptic devices, a new kind of peripherals integrating multiple actuators and capable of providing a fully programmable force feedback to the user's fingers. A global methodology is presented, outlining the different constituents necessary for their conception: actuator, sensor, control, communication and software user interface. Then, generic tools corresponding to the two first elements are presented. An accurate modeling of miniature electromagnetic short-stroke actuators is made possible thanks to the combination of 3D finite element modeling (FEM) and design of experiments (DOE). The non-usual behavior of magnetic flux lines in miniature actuators with relatively large airgaps imposes to avoid simplified analytical models and to use the reliable results of finite elements. The long computation times required by 3D FEM are balanced by the use of selective DOE making the modeling methodology easily adaptable, rapid and accurate. The parametrical model of the force provided by the modeling methodology is then integrated in a full parametrical setup allowing for the optimization of the actuator force using a conventional algorithm. The advantage of the parametrical optimization is that complementary non-linear constraints such as weight and temperature can be added, making the model multi-physic. Then, several original position measurement techniques using existing sensors are developed including a low-cost custom single-photointerrupter sensor allowing for direction discrimination for fast-prototyping and a hybrid sensing method using tiny Hall sensors and taking advantage of the leaks of the main actuator magnet. Two innovative self-sensing methods are then presented, allowing for the measurement of the mover position of linear short-stroke actuators. The first solution estimates the position of the coil by measuring the acceleration through the back emf. However in this case, a constant acceleration is required, which strongly restrains the application scope. The second solution allows for a real-time measurement of the position thanks to a passive oscillating RLC circuit influenced by the variation of the coil impedance. All the solutions presented are low-cost, compact and require few computation resources. Finally, in order to illustrate the methodology proposed along the thesis, several prototypes are fabricated, giving an overview of the possibilities offered by multi-finger haptic devices. A haptic numeric pad is notably used in an experiment made in collaboration with the University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Lausanne with the aim of improving the impaired emotional processing of psychotic adolescents. Moreover, the successful identification of several touch sensations on the same haptic pad lays the first stones of a new tactile language

분산된 로터로 구동되는 비행 스켈레톤 시스템의 디자인 상태추정 및 제어

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 기계항공공학부,2020. 2. 이동준.In this thesis, we present key theoretical components for realizing flying aerial skeleton system called LASDRA (large-size aerial skeleton with distributed rotor actuation). Aerial skeletons are articulated aerial robots actuated by distributed rotors including both ground connected type and flying type. These systems have recently attracted interest and are being actively researched in several research groups, with the expectation of applying those for aerial manipulation in distant/narrow places, or for the performance with entertaining purpose such as drone shows. Among the aerial skeleton systems, LASDRA system, proposed by our group has some significant advantages over the other skeleton systems that it is capable of free SE(3) motion by omni-directional wrench generation of each link, and also the system can be operated with wide range of configuration because of the 3DOF (degrees of freedom) inter-link rotation enabled by cable connection among the link modules. To realize this LASDRA system, following three components are crucial: 1) a link module that can produce omni-directional force and torque and enough feasible wrench space; 2) pose and posture estimation algorithm for an articulated system with high degrees of freedom; and 3) a motion generation framework that can provide seemingly natural motion while being able to generate desired motion (e.g., linear and angular velocity) for the entire body. The main contributions of this thesis is theoretically developing these three components, and verifying these through outdoor flight experiment with a real LASDRA system. First of all, a link module for the LASDRA system is designed with proposed constrained optimization problem, maximizing the guaranteed feasible force and torque for any direction while also incorporating some constraints (e.g., avoiding inter-rotor air-flow interference) to directly obtain feasible solution. Also, an issue of ESC-induced (electronic speed control) singularity is first introduced in the literature which is inevitably caused by bi-directional thrust generation with sensorless actuators, and handled with a novel control allocation called selective mapping. Then for the state estimation of the entire LASDRA system, constrained Kalman filter based estimation algorithm is proposed that can provide estimation result satisfying kinematic constraint of the system, also along with a semi-distributed version of the algorithm to endow with system scalability. Lastly, CPG-based motion generation framework is presented that can generate natural biomimetic motion, and by exploiting the inverse CPG model obtained with machine learning method, it becomes possible to generate certain desired motion while still making CPG generated natural motion.본 논문에서는 비행 스켈레톤 시스템 LASDRA (large-size aerial skeleton with distributed rotor actuation) 의 구현을 위해 요구되는 핵심 기법들을 제안하며, 이를 실제 LASDRA 시스템의 실외 비행을 통해 검증한다. 제안된 기법은 1) 전방향으로 힘과 토크를 낼 수 있고 충분한 가용 렌치공간을 가진 링크 모듈, 2) 높은 자유도의 다관절구조 시스템을 위한 위치 및 자세 추정 알고리즘, 3) 자연스러운 움직임을 내는 동시에 전체 시스템이 속도, 각속도 등 원하는 움직임을 내도록 할 수 있는 모션 생성 프레임워크로 구성된다. 본 논문에서는 우선 링크 모듈의 디자인을 위해 전방향으로 보장되는 힘과 토크의 크기를 최대화하는 구속 최적화를 사용하고, 실제 적용가능한 해를 얻기 위해 몇가지 구속조건(로터 간 공기 흐름 간섭의 회피 등)을 고려한다. 또한 센서가 없는 액츄에이터로 양방향 추력을 내는 것에서 야기되는 ESC 유발 특이점 (ESC-induced singularity) 이라는 문제를 처음으로 소개하고, 이를 해결하기 위해 선택적 맵핑 (selective mapping) 이라는 기법을 제시한다. 전체 LASDRA 시스템의 상태추정을 위해 시스템의 기구학적 구속조건을 만족하는 결과를 얻을 수 있도록 구속 칼만 필터 기반의 상태추정 기법을 제시하고, 시스템 확장성을 고려하여 반 분산 (semi-distributed) 개념의 알고리즘을 함께 제시한다. 마지막으로 본 논문에서는 자연스러운 움직임의 생성을 위하여 CPG 기반의 모션 생성 프레임워크를 제안하며, 기계 학습 방법을 통해 CPG 역연산 모델을 얻음으로써 전체 시스템이 원하는 움직임을 낼 수 있도록 한다.1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation and Background 1 1.2 Research Problems and Approach 3 1.3 Preview of Contributions 5 2 Omni-Directional Aerial Robot 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Mechanical Design 12 2.2.1 Design Description 12 2.2.2 Wrench-Maximizing Design Optimization 13 2.3 System Modeling and Control Design 20 2.3.1 System Modeling 20 2.3.2 Pose Trajectory Tracking Control 22 2.3.3 Hybrid Pose/Wrench Control 22 2.3.4 PSPM-Based Teleoperation 24 2.4 Control Allocation with Selective Mapping 27 2.4.1 Infinity-Norm Minimization 27 2.4.2 ESC-Induced Singularity and Selective Mapping 29 2.5 Experiment 38 2.5.1 System Setup 38 2.5.2 Experiment Results 41 2.6 Conclusion 49 3 Pose and Posture Estimation of an Aerial Skeleton System 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Preliminary 53 3.3 Pose and Posture Estimation 55 3.3.1 Estimation Algorithm via SCKF 55 3.3.2 Semi-Distributed Version of Algorithm 59 3.4 Simulation 62 3.5 Experiment 65 3.5.1 System Setup 65 3.5.2 Experiment of SCKF-Based Estimation Algorithm 66 3.6 Conclusion 69 4 CPG-Based Motion Generation 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Description of Entire Framework 75 4.2.1 LASDRA System 75 4.2.2 Snake-Like Robot & Pivotboard 77 4.3 CPG Model 79 4.3.1 LASDRA System 79 4.3.2 Snake-Like Robot 80 4.3.3 Pivotboard 83 4.4 Target Pose Calculation with Expected Physics 84 4.5 Inverse Model Learning 86 4.5.1 LASDRA System 86 4.5.2 Snake-Like Robot 89 4.5.3 Pivotboard 90 4.6 CPG Parameter Adaptation 93 4.7 Simulation 94 4.7.1 LASDRA System 94 4.7.2 Snake-Like Robot & Pivotboard 97 4.8 Conclusion 101 5 Outdoor Flight Experiment of the F-LASDRA System 103 5.1 System Setup 103 5.2 Experiment Results 104 6 Conclusion 111 6.1 Summary 111 6.2 Future Works 112Docto

Development and evaluation of mixed reality-enhanced robotic systems for intuitive tele-manipulation and telemanufacturing tasks in hazardous conditions

In recent years, with the rapid development of space exploration, deep-sea discovery, nuclear rehabilitation and management, and robotic-assisted medical devices, there is an urgent need for humans to interactively control robotic systems to perform increasingly precise remote operations. The value of medical telerobotic applications during the recent coronavirus pandemic has also been demonstrated and will grow in the future. This thesis investigates novel approaches to the development and evaluation of a mixed reality-enhanced telerobotic platform for intuitive remote teleoperation applications in dangerous and difficult working conditions, such as contaminated sites and undersea or extreme welding scenarios. This research aims to remove human workers from the harmful working environments by equipping complex robotic systems with human intelligence and command/control via intuitive and natural human-robot- interaction, including the implementation of MR techniques to improve the user's situational awareness, depth perception, and spatial cognition, which are fundamental to effective and efficient teleoperation. The proposed robotic mobile manipulation platform consists of a UR5 industrial manipulator, 3D-printed parallel gripper, and customized mobile base, which is envisaged to be controlled by non-skilled operators who are physically separated from the robot working space through an MR-based vision/motion mapping approach. The platform development process involved CAD/CAE/CAM and rapid prototyping techniques, such as 3D printing and laser cutting. Robot Operating System (ROS) and Unity 3D are employed in the developing process to enable the embedded system to intuitively control the robotic system and ensure the implementation of immersive and natural human-robot interactive teleoperation. This research presents an integrated motion/vision retargeting scheme based on a mixed reality subspace approach for intuitive and immersive telemanipulation. An imitation-based velocity- centric motion mapping is implemented via the MR subspace to accurately track operator hand movements for robot motion control, and enables spatial velocity-based control of the robot tool center point (TCP). The proposed system allows precise manipulation of end-effector position and orientation to readily adjust the corresponding velocity of maneuvering. A mixed reality-based multi-view merging framework for immersive and intuitive telemanipulation of a complex mobile manipulator with integrated 3D/2D vision is presented. The proposed 3D immersive telerobotic schemes provide the users with depth perception through the merging of multiple 3D/2D views of the remote environment via MR subspace. The mobile manipulator platform can be effectively controlled by non-skilled operators who are physically separated from the robot working space through a velocity-based imitative motion mapping approach. Finally, this thesis presents an integrated mixed reality and haptic feedback scheme for intuitive and immersive teleoperation of robotic welding systems. By incorporating MR technology, the user is fully immersed in a virtual operating space augmented by real-time visual feedback from the robot working space. The proposed mixed reality virtual fixture integration approach implements hybrid haptic constraints to guide the operator’s hand movements following the conical guidance to effectively align the welding torch for welding and constrain the welding operation within a collision-free area. Overall, this thesis presents a complete tele-robotic application space technology using mixed reality and immersive elements to effectively translate the operator into the robot’s space in an intuitive and natural manner. The results are thus a step forward in cost-effective and computationally effective human-robot interaction research and technologies. The system presented is readily extensible to a range of potential applications beyond the robotic tele- welding and tele-manipulation tasks used to demonstrate, optimise, and prove the concepts

A flexible access platform for robot-assisted minimally invasive surgery

Advances in Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) are driven by the clinical demand to reduce the invasiveness of surgical procedures so patients undergo less trauma and experience faster recoveries. These well documented benefits of MIS have been achieved through parallel advances in the technology and instrumentation used during procedures. The new and evolving field of Flexible Access Surgery (FAS), where surgeons access the operative site through a single incision or a natural orifice incision, is being promoted as the next potential step in the evolution of surgery. In order to achieve similar levels of success and adoption as MIS, technology again has its role to play in developing new instruments to solve the unmet clinical challenges of FAS. As procedures become less invasive, these instruments should not just address the challenges presented by the complex access routes of FAS, but should also build on the recent advances in pre- and intraoperative imaging techniques to provide surgeons with new diagnostic and interventional decision making capabilities. The main focus of this thesis is the development and applications of a flexible robotic device that is capable of providing controlled flexibility along curved pathways inside the body. The principal component of the device is its modular mechatronic joint design which utilises an embedded micromotor-tendon actuation scheme to provide independently addressable degrees of freedom and three internal working channels. Connecting multiple modules together allows a seven degree-of-freedom (DoF) flexible access platform to be constructed. The platform is intended for use as a research test-bed to explore engineering and surgical challenges of FAS. Navigation of the platform is realised using a handheld controller optimised for functionality and ergonomics, or in a "hands-free" manner via a gaze contingent control framework. Under this framework, the operator's gaze fixation point is used as feedback to close the servo control loop. The feasibility and potential of integrating multi-spectral imaging capabilities into flexible robotic devices is also demonstrated. A force adaptive servoing mechanism is developed to simplify the deployment, and improve the consistency of probe-based optical imaging techniques by automatically controlling the contact force between the probe tip and target tissue. The thesis concludes with the description of two FAS case studies performed with the platform during in-vivo porcine experiments. These studies demonstrate the ability of the platform to perform large area explorations within the peritoneal cavity and to provide a stable base for the deployment of interventional instruments and imaging probes

Ανάπτυξη τεχνολογιών επαυξημένης πραγματικότητας στην ιατρική εκπαίδευση με προσομοιωτές

Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή παρουσιάζουμε ένα πρωτοπόρο σύστημα εκπαίδευσης και αξιολόγησης βασικών δεξιοτήτων λαπαροσκοπικής χειρουργικής σε περιβάλλον Επαυξημένης Πραγματικότητας (ΕΠ). Το προτεινόμενο σύστημα αποτελεί μια πλήρως λειτουργική πλατφόρμα εκπαίδευσης η οποία επιτρέπει σε χειρουργούς να εξασκηθούν χρησιμοποιώντας πραγματικά λαπαροσκοπικά εργαλεία και αλληλεπιδρώντας με ψηφιακά αντικείμενα εντός ενός πραγματικού περιβάλλοντος εκπαίδευσης. Το σύστημα αποτελείται από ένα τυπικό κουτί λαπαροσκοπικής εκπαίδευσης, πραγματικά χειρουργικά εργαλεία, κάμερα και συστοιχία αισθητήρων που επιτρέπουν την ανίχνευση και καταγραφή των κινήσεων του χειρουργού σε πραγματικό χρόνο. Χρησιμοποιώντας το προτεινόμενο σύστημα, σχεδιάσαμε και υλοποιήσαμε σενάρια εκπαίδευσης παρόμοια με τις ασκήσεις του προγράμματος FLS®, στοχεύοντας σε δεξιότητες όπως η αίσθηση βάθους, ο συντονισμός χεριού-ματιού, και η παράλληλη χρήση δύο χεριών. Επιπλέον των βασικών δεξιοτήτων, το προτεινόμενο σύστημα χρησιμοποιήθηκε για τον σχεδιασμό σεναρίου εξάσκησης διαδικαστικών δεξιοτήτων, οι οποίες περιλάμβανουν την εφαρμογή χειρουργικών clips καθώς και την απολίνωση εικονικής αρτηρίας, σε περιβάλλον ΕΠ. Τα αποτελέσματα συγκριτικών μελετών μεταξύ έμπειρων και αρχαρίων χειρουργών που πραγματοποιήθηκαν στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διατριβής υποδηλώνουν την εγκυρότητα του προτεινόμενου συστήματος. Επιπλέον, εξήχθησαν σημαντικά συμπεράσματα σχετικά με την πιθανή χρήση της ΕΑ στην λαπαροσκοπική προσομοίωση. Η συγκεκριμένη τεχνολογία προσφέρει αυξημένη αίσθηση οπτικού ρεαλισμού και ευελιξία στον σχεδιασμό εκπαιδευτικών σεναρίων, παρουσιάζοντας σημαντικά μικρότερες απαιτήσεις από πλευράς εξοπλισμού σε σύγκριση με τις υπάρχουσες εμπορικές πλατφόρμες. Βάσει των αποτελεσμάτων της παρούσας διατριβής μπορεί με ασφάλεια να εξαχθεί το συμπέρασμα πως η ΕΠ αποτελεί μια πολλά υποσχόμενη τεχνολογία που θα μπορούσε να χρησιμοποιηθεί για τον σχεδιασμό προσομοιωτών λαπαροσκοπικής χειρουργικής ως εναλλακτική των υπαρχόντων τεχνολογιών και συστημάτων.In this thesis we present what is, to the best of our knowledge, the first framework for training and assessment of fundamental psychomotor and procedural laparoscopic skills in an interactive Augmented Reality (AR) environment. The proposed system is a fully-featured laparoscopic training platform, allowing surgeons to practice by manipulating real instruments while interacting with virtual objects within a real environment. It consists of a standard laparoscopic box-trainer, real instruments, a camera and a set of sensory devices for real-time tracking of surgeons’ actions. The proposed framework has been used for the implementation of AR-based training scenarios similar to the drills of the FLS® program, focusing on fundamental laparoscopic skills such as depth-perception, hand-eye coordination and bimanual operation. Moreover, this framework allowed the implementation of a proof-of-concept procedural skills training scenario, which involved clipping and cutting of a virtual artery within an AR environment. Comparison studies conducted for the evaluation of the presented framework indicated high content and face validity. In addition, significant conclusions regarding the potentials of introducing AR in laparoscopic simulation training and assessment were drawn. This technology provides an advanced sense of visual realism combined with a great flexibility in training task prototyping, with minimum requirements in terms of hardware as compared to commercially available platforms. Thereby, it can be safely stated that AR is a promising technology which can indeed provide a valuable alternative to the training modalities currently used in MIS

Modelado de sensores piezoresistivos y uso de una interfaz basada en guantes de datos para el control de impedancia de manipuladores robóticos

Tesis inédita de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas, Departamento de Arquitectura de Computadores y Automática, leída el 21-02-2014Sección Deptal. de Arquitectura de Computadores y Automática (Físicas)Fac. de Ciencias FísicasTRUEunpu