E Is for Everyone: The Case for Inclusive Game Design

Part of the Volume on the Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning In this chapter I examine the accessibility of today's games, or rather the lack of. Even common medical conditions such as arthritis, repetitive stress injuries, and diminished vision may prevent individuals from playing today's top software titles, not to speak of the barriers that these titles pose to the blind, deaf, and immobile. The clearest and most disheartening manifestation can be found when examining the special-needs sector. There we find children who cannot partake in their most coveted play activities, due to inconsiderate (and therefore inflexible) game design. I chose this sector to both define the problem and explore its solutions. Written from the perspective of a designer, the chapter first describes the lack-of-play and its residual impact as perceived in a school that caters to over 200 children with special needs. In an attempt to create the "ultimate-accessible" game, I demonstrate how games can be designed to be intrinsically accessible while retaining their original playability. Lastly, I show how normalization-of-play may improve upon the social, educational, and therapeutic aspects of the children's daily lives. Tying this fringe-case with the grander ecology of games, I discusses how better accessibility may encourage more people to enjoy games -- be they gamers, students, or patients

The role of motion analysis in elite soccer

The optimal physical preparation of elite soccer (association football) players has become an indispensable part of the professional game especially due to the increased physical demands of match-play. The monitoring of players’ work-rate profiles during competition is now feasible through computer-aided motion analysis. Traditional methods of motion analysis were extremely labour intensive and were largely restricted to university- based research projects. Recent technological developments have meant that sophisticated systems, capable of quickly recording and processing the data of all players’ physical contributions throughout an entire match, are now being used in elite club environments. In recognition of the important role motion analysis now plays as a tool for measuring the physical performance of soccer players, this review critically appraises various motion analysis methods currently employed in elite soccer and explores research conducted using these methods. This review therefore aims to increase the awareness of both practitioners and researchers of the various motion analysis systems available, identify practical implications of the established body of knowledge, while highlighting areas that require further exploration

Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

Combining brain-computer interfaces and assistive technologies: state-of-the-art and challenges

In recent years, new research has brought the field of EEG-based Brain-Computer Interfacing (BCI) out of its infancy and into a phase of relative maturity through many demonstrated prototypes such as brain-controlled wheelchairs, keyboards, and computer games. With this proof-of-concept phase in the past, the time is now ripe to focus on the development of practical BCI technologies that can be brought out of the lab and into real-world applications. In particular, we focus on the prospect of improving the lives of countless disabled individuals through a combination of BCI technology with existing assistive technologies (AT). In pursuit of more practical BCIs for use outside of the lab, in this paper, we identify four application areas where disabled individuals could greatly benefit from advancements in BCI technology, namely,“Communication and Control”, “Motor Substitution”, “Entertainment”, and “Motor Recovery”. We review the current state of the art and possible future developments, while discussing the main research issues in these four areas. In particular, we expect the most progress in the development of technologies such as hybrid BCI architectures, user-machine adaptation algorithms, the exploitation of users’ mental states for BCI reliability and confidence measures, the incorporation of principles in human-computer interaction (HCI) to improve BCI usability, and the development of novel BCI technology including better EEG devices

Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger? The Relationship between Cognitive Task Demands in Video Games and Recovery Experiences

Research has repeatedly demonstrated that the use of interactive media is associated with recovery experiences, suggesting that engaging with media can help people to alleviate stress and restore mental and physical resources. Video games, in particular, have been shown to fulfil various aspects of recovery, not least due to their ability to elicit feelings of mastery and control. However, little is known about the role of cognitive task demand (i.e., the amount of cognitive effort a task requires) in that process. Toward this end, our study aimed to investigate how cognitive task demand during gameplay affects users’ recovery experiences. Results of a laboratory experiment suggest that different dimensions of the recovery experiences seem to respond to different levels of cognitive task demand. While control experiences were highest under low cognitive task demand, there was no difference between groups regarding experiences of mastery and psychological detachment. Nevertheless, both gaming conditions outperformed the control condition regarding experiences of mastery and psychological detachment. Controlling for personal gaming experiences, relaxation was higher in the low cognitive task demand condition compared to the control condition. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for research on the multilayered recovery effects of interactive media

Laboratory and field-based assessments to determine the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of elite soccer players

A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Research)This thesis investigated the anthropometric, aerobic and anaerobic characteristics of elite male and female soccer players. Forty-three male (age, 23.6 ± 5.5 years; stature, 1.86 ± 0.13 m; body mass, 89.5 ± 16.5 kg) and eighteen female soccer players (age, 29.7 ± 9.5 years; stature, 1.69 ± 0.68 m; body mass, 64.6 ± 9.7 kg) from the highest respective English domestic leagues participated in the studies. The male soccer players were assessed on three occasions; End of Season (EOS), Prior to Pre-season (PTP) and Post Pre-season (PPS), performing a motorised treadmill incremental test to determine O2max and sum of eight skinfolds to estimate body fat. Female soccer players were assessed on a single occasion at the start of pre-season, performing repeat sprint ability (RSA) assessment (7 x 30m in 20 sec intervals) and sum of eight skinfolds; as well as friendly matches monitored for physical loading using global positioning satellite system (GPS) devices. The elite male players’ estimated body fat was lowest EOS, however O2max values were also lower (55.5 ± 4.8 ml•kg-1•min-1) than PTP (56.7 ± 6.5 ml•kg-1•min-1) and significantly lower than EOP (61.7± 6.1 ml•kg-1•min-1) (r =0.70, R2 = 0.32; p < 0.01). Females’ estimated body fat correlated significantly with RSA performance (r = 0.71, R2 = 0.32; p < 0.01). RSA was also significantly correlated to the number of match-based high intensity efforts performed (speeds≥ 4.1 m•s-1) (r = -0.77, R2 = 0.52; p < 0.01). This study demonstrates that in elite male soccer players, O2max values observed after pre-season are significantly greater than the preceding post-season results, illustrating a decline in aerobic capacity toward the end of a competitive season. Additionally, body fat and anaerobic capability (RSA) appear to be interrelated within elite female soccer, as well as the RSA results being associated with players’ capability to perform repeated high intensity efforts during match-play

Being serious about games:Whether, how, why, and when computer- and game-based interventions could facilitate in reducing burdens of chronic somatic symptoms

Computertoepassingen hebben de potentie om patiënten met een chronische aandoening op een toegankelijke of kosteneffectieve wijze te ondersteunen. ‘Serious games’ zijn computergames die bedoeld zijn om spelers van de games te vermaken, maar ook hun kennis, gedrag, of (mentale) gezondheid te beïnvloeden. Voor patiënten met chronische klachten van pijn of vermoeidheid werd de game LAKA ontwikkeld om hen te motiveren tot oefening in zelfbewustzijn in de omgang met dagelijkse onzekere sociaal-emotionele situaties. Naar schatting heeft één op de vijf Europeanen langer dan zes maanden pijn. Chronische pijn eist aandacht op en daagt uit om daarmee om te gaan. In veel gevallen ontstaan daarbij psychosociale problemen, zoals depressie en verzuim, met sterke maatschappelijke gevolgen. Veel is nog onduidelijk over de haalbaarheid en effectiviteit van computerinterventies, zoals serious games, ter vermindering van individuele lasten van chronische lichamelijke symptomen. In dit onderzoek is met diverse methoden geprobeerd antwoord te geven op de vragen: In hoeverre werken computerinterventies en serious games bij welke mensen met langdurige pijn, hoe werken ze en onder welke omstandigheden? Allereerst werd een literatuurstudie uitgevoerd naar eerder gepubliceerde experimenten over de effectiviteit van computerinterventies voor patiënten met chronische pijn of onverklaarde chronische lichamelijke klachten. Voor onderzoek naar de haalbaarheid van ‘LAKA’, oftewel de acceptatie en het gebruik van de game door patiënten tijdens een multidisciplinair revalidatieprogramma, werden gegevens uit patiëntendossiers, aanvullende vragenlijsten, automatische gebruiksregistraties en patiëntinterviews gebruikt. In een daaropvolgend experiment werden veranderingen in ervaren pijnintensiteit, vermoeidheid, toekenning van negatieve betekenissen aan pijn en psychische lasten vergeleken tussen 2 groepen patiënten: (1) een groep die een door zorgverleners ondersteunde interventie met LAKA volgde tijdens multidisciplinaire revalidatie en (2) een groep die hetzelfde revalidatieprogramma volgde zonder serious gaming. Ook werden patiënten en zorgpersoneel bevraagd naar hun ervaringen met de game. Er werden geen eerdere experimenten met serious games gevonden. De overgrote meerderheid van de geïdentificeerde studies onderzochten het effect van online cognitieve gedragstherapie. Hiervoor werden positieve en blijvende effecten gevonden op patiëntuitkomsten van fysiek en emotioneel functioneren. Echter, de geschatte effecten waren dermate klein en wisselend dat ze voor veel patiënten niet of nauwelijks merkbaar zijn. In het eigen experiment met serious gaming tijdens multidisciplinaire revalidatie werd een ‘zeer klein’ effect gevonden. De inzet van LAKA is haalbaar gebleken tijdens multidisciplinaire revalidatie voor mensen met langdurige pijn. Acceptatie en gebruik varieerden met gewoonten, percepties over plezier en gemak, een coping stijl van actief aanpakken van patiënten en adequate implementatieprocessen. Eerdere experimenten en het experiment met LAKA suggereerden dat leer- en gezondheidseffecten ontstaan door aandachtig gebruik van strategieën voor gedragsverandering. De verklaring hiervoor is dat mensen het piekeren of het toekennen van een negatieve betekenis aan pijn tegengaan. Daarnaast leren zij acceptatie en zelfbewustzijn te bevorderen. Hiervan is sprake bij patiënten die symptomen van depressie tonen of weinig controle over stress of pijn ervaren. Deskundige begeleiding en leren uit blootstelling aan sociale omgevingen, in het echt of in een serious game, zijn daarbij belangrijke voorwaarden. Dit onderzoek kan als basis worden gezien voor meer theoriegerichte en contextgevoelige evaluaties van serious games voor mensen die chronische pijn ervaren. Meer informatie is nodig voor patiënten, zorgverleners en andere besluitvormers, zodat zij beter weten wat ze in persoonlijke en lokale omstandigheden kunnen verwachten van serious games als onderdeel van de behandeling