Pilot Acceptance of Personal, Wearable Fatigue Monitoring Technology: An Application of the Extended Technology Acceptance Model

The research problem of pilot fatigue has been referenced as a causal factor for aircraft accidents in many United States National Transportation and Safety Board (NTSB) accident reports; however, the United States Code of Federal Regulations 14 CFR Part 117, Flight and Duty Limitations and Rest Requirements for Flight Crew Members, does not provide a tangible means of measuring fatigue for aircraft crew members. This problem is relevant to the airline industry and the travelling public because pilot fatigue is preventable as a causal factor in aviation accidents, and pilots need an accurate way to measure it. Adoption of a technology-based solution has been recommended by the NTSB. The purpose of this study was to determine the factors that affect United States certified airline transport pilots’ behavioral intention to use personal, wearable fatigue monitoring technology (FMT), such as a Fitbit or Apple Watch, to assess their personal fatigue levels. FMT could potentially be used to help meet pilots’ legal requirement to be aware of their personal fatigue levels, per 14 CFR Part 117. The theoretical framework for this study is the Extended Technology Acceptance Model, and the research question is: What factors affect pilots’ behavioral intention to use personal, wearable fatigue monitoring technology, and to what degree? There were ten hypotheses tested that corresponded to different relationships in the model. The data for this study was collected using an online survey distributed to certified airline transport pilots in the United States, in which the survey questions corresponded to observed variables pertaining to each of the eight factor constructs in the model. The data was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques to test the hypotheses. The results of the study contributed to the theoretical body of knowledge by demonstrating that a modified version of the Extended Technology Acceptance Model was applicable to U.S. airline transport pilot behavioral intention to use FMT. Six of the ten original hypotheses were supported, and four were not supported. It was determined that the primary factors that positively affect a pilot’s behavioral intention to use FMT are perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Perceived usefulness is positively affected by the external factors of job relevance, results demonstrability, and perceived image or social status, which act as secondary factors positively influencing behavioral intention to use FMT. A tertiary factor influencing behavioral intention to use FMT is subjective norms, which positively influence perceived image, thus positively affecting perceived usefulness and intention to use FMT. Output quality, subjective norms, and perceived ease of use were determined to not have a statistically significant effect on pilots’ perceived usefulness of FMT, and subjective norms were determined not to have a statistically significant effect on pilots’ behavioral intention to use FMT. The practical significance of this study is that pilots find FMT devices most useful when it is applicable to their jobs, provides tangible results, and increases their social status perception. It is beneficial if others around them think they should use FMT, and that if they use FMT, their social status perception increases. Practical solutions to increase the likelihood of pilot FMT device usage should include wearable device applications that provide features that directly apply to the pilot profession, report data in ways that make sense to pilots, and also make the pilot look and feel stylish. Nearly 87 percent of pilots already wear a watch while flying, and over 40 percent of pilots already wear some form of FMT for personal use, so the challenge going forward is to make the right improvements to the devices to increase usage. Such improvements may include new aviation-themed applications that appeal to pilots and provide results that can help them make more informed decisions, while simultaneously improving the aesthetic to drive an increase in social pressures to wear the FMT devices regularly

Classification and reduction of pilot error

Human error is a primary or contributing factor in about two-thirds of commercial aviation accidents worldwide. With the ultimate goal of reducing pilot error accidents, this contract effort is aimed at understanding the factors underlying error events and reducing the probability of certain types of errors by modifying underlying factors such as flight deck design and procedures. A review of the literature relevant to error classification was conducted. Classification includes categorizing types of errors, the information processing mechanisms and factors underlying them, and identifying factor-mechanism-error relationships. The classification scheme developed by Jens Rasmussen was adopted because it provided a comprehensive yet basic error classification shell or structure that could easily accommodate addition of details on domain-specific factors. For these purposes, factors specific to the aviation environment were incorporated. Hypotheses concerning the relationship of a small number of underlying factors, information processing mechanisms, and error types types identified in the classification scheme were formulated. ASRS data were reviewed and a simulation experiment was performed to evaluate and quantify the hypotheses

Human Fatigue Predictions in Complex Aviation Crew Operational Impact Conditions

In this last decade, several regulatory frameworks across the world in all modes of transportation had brought fatigue and its risk management in operations to the forefront. Of all transportation modes air travel has been the safest means of transportation. Still as part of continuous improvement efforts, regulators are insisting the operators to adopt strong fatigue science and its foundational principles to reinforce safety risk assessment and management. Fatigue risk management is a data driven system that finds a realistic balance between safety and productivity in an organization. This work discusses the effects of mathematical modeling of fatigue and its quantification in the context of fatigue risk management for complex global logistics operations. A new concept called Duty DNA is designed within the system that helps to predict and forecast sleep, duty deformations and fatigue. The need for a robust structure of elements to house the components to measure and manage fatigue risk in operations is also debated. By operating on the principles of fatigue management, new science-based predictive, proactive and reactive approaches were designed for an industry leading fatigue risk management program Accurately predicting sleep is very critical to predicting fatigue and alertness. Mathematical models are being developed to track the biological processes quantitatively and predicting temporal profile of fatigue given a person’s sleep history, planned work schedule including night and day exposure. As these models are being continuously worked to improve, a new limited deep learning machine learning based approach is attempted to predict fatigue for a duty in isolation without knowing much of work schedule history. The model within also predicts the duty disruptions and predicted fatigue at the end state of duty

'Walking the talk': How companies succeed in managing risk at sea

This paper draws upon research about risk and risk management conducted with the support of The Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust1. The wider research was large in scale comprising the analysis of over 2,300 questionnaires and a range of data relating to maritime incidents. In addition the study incorporated a detailed analysis of five case study companies. It is this latter element of the research which forms the basis for this paper which considers the differences in perceptions between shore-based, and ship-based, staff working for ship operators in relation to risk management. The paper explores the means of communication utilised for the transmission of data and ideas about safety and risk management both to, and from, management. It then goes on to consider why it is that despite considerable efforts to write and to talk about safety and risk management, many companies are unsuccessful in encouraging their sea-staff to believe that safety is a genuine company priority and therefore to adhere closely to company policy in relation to safety management

Determining Contributing Factors for Passenger Airline Pilot Perceived Fatigue

Fatigue is a recurring concern for pilots and continues to be a common contributing cause of aircraft accidents. The purpose of the dissertation was to determine factors that influence fatigue in commercial airline pilots. The ability to accurately associate fatigue in pilots before a flight begins could have a profound and meaningful impact on aviation safety. Seven factors were identified in the literature review as having possible predictive capabilities of perceived fatigue in pilots working for passenger carriers, including time awake, perceived stress, sleep quality, hours of sleep, age, typically scheduled start time, and hours on duty. An electronic survey instrument was used to gather quantitative data from U.S. passenger-carrying airline pilots. Data collected from 271 responses were randomly assigned to two separate groups. First, a regression equation was created utilizing half of the data collected from a survey instrument. The regression identified that age, hours on duty, and sleep quality (JSS) were significant independent variables (IVs) contributing to fatigue. Next, the regression equation was used to create predicted values of perceived fatigue. Then the second half of the dataset was used to validate if the equation could be utilized to identify contributing factors for passenger airline pilots\u27 perceived fatigue. Data were created with the regression equation and compared to perceived fatigue. The model was a moderate fit for the second data set. The analysis identified age as a negative predictor, indicating that fatigue (FSS) decreases as age increases. Age also had the smallest effect size of the significant IVs. These two items, while counterintuitive, are possibly explained by variances in schedules between pilot seniority. Sleep Quality (JSS) had the most significant effect on fatigue, while hours on duty had a larger effect than age but a smaller effect than sleep quality. Four variables studied were not significant predictors of fatigue and were not used in model creation: time awake, perceived stress, hours of sleep, and typically scheduled start time. Safely operating a flight involves weighing the implications of fatigue and other possible hazards resulting in many possible predictive factors. Heinrich’s domino theory was used to derive the fatigue factors in this dissertation. The significant predictor variables, age, hours on duty, and sleep quality form a potential “domino” for a fatigue- related accident. These fatigue factors may not cause an accident but could be a “domino” in a series of factors. While some fatigue factors have been studied, the factors studied in this dissertation have not previously been studied in the same way by creating a model with this population. Additionally, previous fatigue studies have not typically researched U.S.- based passenger-carrying pilots. Analyzing risks associated with fatigue in passenger- carrying pilots at commercial airlines is particularly complex because many factors can influence fatigue, including scheduling software, union contracts, and norms and practices. Airlines and regulators could use the prediction equation to potentially reduce fatigue-related risks. The equation created can predict fatigue in advance of scheduled flights and serve as a starting point for future fatigue researchers

Perspectives on fatigue in short-haul flight operations from US pilots: A focus group study

There are few studies investigating the impact of fatigue in short-haul flight operations conducted under United States (US) 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 117 flight and duty limitations and rest requirements. In order to understand the fatigue factors unique to short-haul operations, we conducted a series of focus groups across four major commercial passenger airlines in the US. Ninety short-haul pilots were recruited through emails distributed by airline safety teams and labor representatives. Fourteen focus groups were conducted via an online conferencing platform in which participants were asked to identify short-haul schedules and operations that they felt: a) elevated fatigue, b) were not fatiguing, and c) were important to study. Data were collected anonymously and coded using conventional qualitative content analysis, with axial coding and summative analysis used to identify main themes and over-arching categories. The six fatigue factor categories identified were: circadian disruption, high workload, inadequate rest opportunity, schedule changes, regulation implementation and policy issues, and long sits. It appears that additional mitigation strategies may be needed to manage fatigue in short-haul operations beyond the current regulations. Future field studies of short-haul operations in the US should investigate the prevalence and impact of these factors

Crew Factors in Flight Operations 7: Psychophysiological Responses to Overnight Cargo Operations

To document the psychophysiological effects of flying overnight cargo operations, 41 B-727 crew members (average age 38 yr) were monitored before, during, and after one of two typical 8-day trip patterns. During daytime layovers, the average sleep episode was 3 hr (41%) shorter than nighttime sleeps and was rated as lighter, less restorative, and poorer overall. Sleep was frequently split into several episodes and totaled 1.2 hr less per 24 hr than on pretrip days. Each trip pattern included a night off, which was an effective countermeasure against the accumulating sleep debt. The organization of sleep during daytime layovers reflected the interaction of duty timing with circadian physiology. The circadian temperature rhythm did not adapt completely to the inverted wake-rest schedule on duty days, being delayed by about 3 hr. Highest subjective fatigue and lowest activation occurred around the time of the temperature minimum. On duty days, reports of headaches increased by 400%, of congested nose by 200%, and of burning eyes by 900%. Crew members also reported eating more snacks. Compared with daytime short-haul air-transport operations, the overnight cargo trips included fewer duty and flight hours, and had longer layovers. Overnight cargo crews also averaged 5.4 yr younger than their daytime short-haul counterparts. On trips, both groups lost a comparable amount of sleep per 24 hr, but the overnight cargo crews had shorter individual sleep episodes and more broken sleep. These data clearly demonstrate that overnight cargo operations, like other night work, involve physiological disruption not found in comparable daytime operations

Analysing the effects of working period on psychophysiological states of seafarers

Background: Human factor has become a critical issue due to the fact that all operational processes inmaritime transportation have been accelerated with technological innovations. Irregular and long workinghours, rapid change of working environments and other organisational and/or individual factors have negativeimpact on the performance of the seafarers as well as other transportation workers and/or shift workers.Seafarers working under the influence of these stressor factors, naturally, are affected from psychophysiologicaland cognitive aspects, which in return decrease their overall performances. The study mainly aimed toinvestigate which of the above mentioned affecting factors had greater impact on seafarers’ performances. Materials and methods: For this purpose, data for 14 healthy male seafarers on board different vessels wascollected. The collected data included the number of port visits, frequency of change of circadian rhythm, totalworking hours and watchkeeping periods in the recent month. In order to analyse the psychophysiologicaleffect of working period, electrodermal activity and heart rate variability measurements for arousal moodand data from 2-choice reaction time tests for cognitive performance were collected from the seafarers.Results: Obtained data was analysed in SPSS software programme applying multiple regression with factoranalysis to model the dependence between psychophysiological states of seafarers and working periods. Conclusions: According to the results, it was determined that the change of circadian rhythm is the maindeterminant factor for seafarers. The results showed that when seafarer’s circadian rhythm is changedmore frequently, they experience more drowsiness