Human metrology for person classification and recognition

Human metrological features generally refers to geometric measurements extracted from humans, such as height, chest circumference or foot length. Human metrology provides an important soft biometric that can be used in challenging situations, such as person classification and recognition at a distance, where hard biometric traits such as fingerprints and iris information cannot easily be acquired. In this work, we first study the question of predictability and correlation in human metrology. We show that partial or available measurements can be used to predict other missing measurements. We then investigate the use of human metrology for the prediction of other soft biometrics, viz. gender and weight. The experimental results based on our proposed copula-based model suggest that human body metrology contains enough information for reliable prediction of gender and weight. Also, the proposed copula-based technique is observed to reduce the impact of noise on prediction performance. We then study the question of whether face metrology can be exploited for reliable gender prediction. A new method based solely on metrological information from facial landmarks is developed. The performance of the proposed metrology-based method is compared with that of a state-of-the-art appearance-based method for gender classification. Results on several face databases show that the metrology-based approach resulted in comparable accuracy to that of the appearance-based method. Furthermore, we study the question of person recognition (classification and identification) via whole body metrology. Using CAESAR 1D database as baseline, we simulate intra-class variation with various noise models. The experimental results indicate that given enough number of features, our metrology-based recognition system can have promising performance that is comparable to several recent state-of-the-art recognition systems. We propose a non-parametric feature selection methodology, called adapted k-nearest neighbor estimator, which does not rely on intra-class distribution of the query set. This leads to improved results over other nearest neighbor estimators (as feature selection criteria) for moderate number of features. Finally we quantify the discrimination capability of human metrology, from both individuality and capacity perspectives. Generally, a biometric-based recognition technique relies on an assumption that the given biometric is unique to an individual. However, the validity of this assumption is not yet generally confirmed for most soft biometrics, such as human metrology. In this work, we first develop two schemes that can be used to quantify the individuality of a given soft-biometric system. Then, a Poisson channel model is proposed to analyze the recognition capacity of human metrology. Our study suggests that the performance of such a system depends more on the accuracy of the ground truth or training set

A shape analysis approach to prediction of bone stiffness using FEXI

The preferred method of assessing the risk of an osteoporosis related fracture is currently a measure of bone mineral density (BMD) by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). However, other factors contribute to the overall risk of fracture, including anatomical geometry and the spatial distribution of bone. Finite element analysis can be performed in both two and three dimensions, and predicts the deformation or induced stress when a load is applied to a structure (such as a bone) of defined material composition and shape. The simulation of a mechanical compression test provides a measure of whole bone stiffness (N mm−1). A simulation system was developed to study the sensitivity of BMD, 3D and 2D finite element analysis to variations in geometric parameters of a virtual proximal femur model. This study demonstrated that 3D FE and 2D FE (FEXI) were significantly more sensitive to the anatomical shape and composition of the proximal femur than conventional BMD. The simulation approach helped to analyse and understand how variations in geometric parameters affect the stiffness and hence strength of a bone susceptible to osteoporotic fracture. Originally, the FEXI technique modelled the femur as a thin plate model of an assumed constant depth for finite element analysis (FEA). A better prediction of tissue depth across the bone, based on its geometry, was required to provide a more accurate model for FEA. A shape template was developed for the proximal femur to provide this information for the 3D FE analysis. Geometric morphometric techniques were used to procure and analyse shape information from a set of CT scans of excised human femora. Generalized Procrustes Analysis and Thin Plate Splines were employed to analyse the data and generate a shape template for the proximal femur. 2D Offset and Depth maps generated from the training set data were then combined to model the three-dimensional shape of the bone. The template was used to predict the three-dimensional bone shape from a 2D image of the proximal femur procured through a DXA scan. The error in the predicted 3D shape was measured as the difference in predicted and actual depths at each pixel. The mean error in predicted depths was found to be 1.7mm compared to an average bone depth of 34mm. 3D FEXI analysis on the predicted 3D bone along with 2D FEXI for a stance loading condition and BMD measurement were performed based on 2D radiographic projections of the CT scans and compared to bone stiffness results obtained from finite element analysis of the original 3D CT scans. 3D FEXI provided a significantly higher correlation (R2 = 0.85) with conventional CT derived 3D finite element analysis than achieved with both BMD (R2 = 0.52) and 2D FEXI (R2 = 0.44)

The Human Biodiversity in the Middle of the Mediterranean. Study of native and settlers populations on the Sicilian context

[IT] Negli ultimi 200.000 anni, la specie umana si è diffusa in tutta la Terra, adattando la sua morfologia e fisiologia a un'ampia gamma di habitat. Lo scheletro umano ha quindi registrato i principali effetti ambientali e di conseguenza i reperti scheletrici assumono grande importanza nell'indagine dei processi evolutivi. Oggi le moderne tecniche di indagini quantitative delle principali caratteristiche morfologiche consentono di metterle in relazione con la variabilità genetica. La posizione geografica della Sicilia, l'isolamento e la sua lunga e dinamica storia di colonizzazione (diversi e numerosi contributi culturali e biologici) hanno creato un contesto peculiare che consente uno studio antropologico unico, utile per sottrarre informazioni importanti sul “Flusso Migratorio” e il conseguente "Influenza delle Popolazioni" sui resti scheletrici umani. Questo progetto si basa sull'analisi antropologica delle ossa umane provenienti da diverse popolazioni (indigene e colonizzatori) distribuite dal Paleolitico all'Età Contemporanea. Le più moderne tecniche di Analisi Geometria Morfometrica (ricostruzione 3D) e di Analisi Statistica Multivariata sono state applicate su tre diversi caratteri scheletrici (Denti, Crani e Statura). L'obiettivo del progetto è quello di eseguire un'ampia analisi della Biodiversità Umana Siciliana al fine di: - Analizzare i dati odontometrici 2D con tecniche multivariate per esplorare le relazioni tra i popoli nel corso dei secoli. - Usare modelli 3D e la morfometria cranio-facciale per studiare la complesso variabilità morfologica relativa alle influenze dei flussi migratori. - Valutare il Secular Trend della Statura. - Usare questi tre caratteri per fornire una panoramica generale della Biodiversità Umana in Sicilia. Il nostro lavoro denota l'affidabilità dei metodi impiegati e come in uno studio sulla biodiversità diversi caratteri sono indispensabili per comprendere il processo evolutivo. I dati forniti dimostrano anche la correlazione tra i caratteri morfologici XI e l'influenza esercitata (non solo dai fattori ambientali) dal flusso umano sul fenotipo. I risultati mostrano chiaramente come tutti i caratteri valutati siano coinvolti allo stesso tempo nello stesso processo di diversificazione. Le variazioni morfologiche mostrano una generale diminuzione del prognatismo mascellare e una leggera mesocefalizzazione con il cranio che diventa più stretto e leggermente e meno allungato e il viso che diventa più largo e più corto. Considerando sempre l’influenza del rapporto dimensione/composizione sia l'analisi statistica canonica che quella multivariata, supportano la teoria che i coloni del Paleolitico superiore di San Teodoro potrebbero ragionevolmente essere la prima prova di colonizzazione umana in Sicilia (questa teoria è anche supportata dai campioni Mesolitici che clusterizzano separati dai primi). Significativi sono i periodi del Bronzo della transizione Bronzo/Ferro nei quali assistiamo ad importanti cambiamenti morfologici (Denti, Crani e Stature) dovuti a “Flussi Migratori” costanti e numericamente significativi. Questa variazione coincide esattamente con i primi “Afflussi di Popolazione” stabili conseguenti alle migrazioni umane dal continente. Tuttavia i campioni preistorici di alcune popolazioni, conservano alcuni caratteri arcaici anche dopo l'Età del Ferro (Era Storica) mentre la "Continuità di Popolazione" (conseguente alla convivenza e agli alternamenti delle diverse colonizzazioni) dall'Antichità al Medioevo ha prodotto un progressivo aumento della variabilità senza grandi variazione tra Eignevalue e Componenti Principali. L'assenza di relazione interna causata dall'intricato periodo di colonizzazione è invece presente sul campione preistorico sul quale si riscontra una netta variazione tra i PC. Le correlazioni tra "Afflusso di popolazione" e Variabilità sono osservabili anche nell'influenza dei coloni islamici sugli indigeni durante il Medioevo. Tuttavia, l'ampia variabilità e il morfospazio omogeneo mostrano che dopo questi gruppi (fino ai Contemporanei) sono riconoscibili popolazioniben definite.[ES] Durante los últimos 200.000 años, la especie humana se ha extendido por toda la Tierra, adaptando su morfología y fisiología a una amplia variedad de hábitats. Por tanto, el esqueleto humano ha registrado los principales efectos ambientales. Hoy las modernas técnicas de investigaciones cuantitativas de las principales características morfológicas nos permiten relacionarlas con la variabilidad genética. La posición geográfica de la Sicilia, su aislamiento y su larga y dinámica historia de colonización han creado un contexto peculiar que permite un estudio antropológico único, útil para extraer información importante sobre el "Flujo Migratorio" y "Influencia Población". Este proyecto se basa en la análisis antropológica de huesos humanos de diferentes poblaciones (indígenas y colonizadoras). Las técnicas de Análisis de Geometría Morfométrica y Análisis Estadístico Multivariante se han aplicado en tres caracteres esqueléticos diferentes (Dientes, Cráneos y Estatura). El objetivo del proyecto es realizar un análisis amplia de la Biodiversidad Humana Siciliana con el fin de: - Analizar datos odontométricos 2D con técnicas multivariadas para explorar las relaciones entre pueblos entre los siglos. - Utilizar modelos 3D y la morfometría craneofacial para estudiar la compleja variabilidad morfológica relacionada con los flujos migratorios. - Evaluar la tendencia secular de la estatura. - Utilizar estos tres caracteres para proporcionar una descripción general de la Biodiversidad Humana en Sicilia. Esto trabajo denota la confiabilidad de los métodos utilizados y, como en un estudio de la biodiversidad, varios caracteres son indispensables para comprender el proceso evolutivo. Los datos también demuestran la correlación entre los caracteres morfológicos y la influencia (no solo por factores ambientales) de los flujos humanos sobre el fenotipo. Los resultados muestran claramente que todos los caracteres evaluados están involucrados al mismo tiempo en el mismo proceso de diversificación. Las variaciones morfológicas muestran una disminución general del prognatismo maxilar y una ligera mesocefalilización con el cráneo que se convierte en más estrecho y ligeramente y menos alargado y la cara más ancha y corta. Siempre considerando la influencia de la relación tamaño/composición, de la muestra, tanto el análisis estadístico canónico como multivariado apoyan la teoría que la población del Paleolítico Superior de San Teodoro podría ser razonablemente la primera evidencia de colonización humana en Sicilia (esta teoría también es apoyada de la muestra Mesolítica que se agrupa separada). Son significativos los periodos de el Bronce y de la transición Bronce/Hierro en los que asistimos a importantes cambios morfológicos (Dientes, Cráneos y Estatura) debido a los constantes y numéricamente significativos "Flujos Migratorios". Esta variación coincide exactamente con los primeros "Flujos de Población" estables como consecuencia de las migraciones humanas desde el continente. Sin embargo, las muestras Prehistóricas de algunas poblaciones conservan algunas características arcaicas incluso después de la Edad del Hierro (Era Histórica) mientras la "Continuidad de la Población" (resultante de la coexistencia y alternancia de la colonización) desde la Antigüedad hasta la Edad Media produjo una mayor progresiva variabilidad sin pero mayor variación entre Eignevalue y Componentes Principales. La ausencia de relación interna causada por el intrincado período de colonización está presente en la muestra prehistórica en la que hay una clara variación entre las Componentes Principales. Las correlaciones entre la "Afluencia de Población" y la Variabilidad también se pueden observar en la influencia de los colonos Islámicos sobre los indígenas durante la Edad Media. Sin embargo, la amplia variabilidad y el morfoespacio homogéneo muestran que poblaciones bien definidas no son reconocibles después de estos grupos (hasta los contemporáneos).[EN] During the last 200,000 years, human species has spread throughout Earth, adapting their morphology and physiology to a wide range of habitats. The human skeleton has therefore, recorded the main environmental effects. Nowadays modern quantitative investigations of the main morphological features permit us to relate them with the genetic variability. The Sicilian geographic position, isolation and its long and dynamic history of colonization) made a peculiar context that allows a unique anthropological study, useful to sign-out important information about the "Migratory Flow" and the consequent "Populations Influx". This project is based on the Anthropological Analysis of the human bones coming from different populations distributed from Paleolithic to the Contemporary Age. The techniques of Morphometric Geometric analysis and Multivariate Statistic Analysis were applied over three different catchers (Teeth, Skulls and Stature). The project aim is to perform a wide analysis of the Sicilian Human Biodiversity in order to: - Analyze 2D odontometrics data with multivariate techniques to explore the relationships between the peoples over the centuries. - Use 3D models and skull-facial morphometry to study the complex morphological variability concerning the "Populations". - Evaluate the "Stature's Secular Trend". - Use these three characters to provide a general overview of the human biodiversity in Sicily. Our work denotes the reliable of the methods employed underlying as in a study of biodiversity several characters are indispensable to understand the evolutionary process. Data also provided to demonstrate the correlation between the morphological characters and the influence carried (not only by the environmental factors) by the human flow on the phenotype. Results clearly shows as all the characters evaluated are at the same time involved in the same process of diversification. Morphological variations show a general decrease of Maxilla Prognathism and a soft Mesocephalization with the skull that becomes tighter and slightly and less elongated and the face that become wider and shorter. Always considering simple size/composition both Canonical and Multivariate Statistics Analysis display, as the Upper-Paleolithic Würm-Settlers of San Teodoro could reasonably be the first evidence of human colonization in Sicily (this theory is supported by the Mesoltitch Hunter-Gatherers specimens clustered separated from the first one). Meaningful is the periods of Bronze/Iron transition in we assist to the prime plainness of morphological changes (teeth, skulls and statures) due to the constant and numerically significative "Migratory Flows". This variation exactly coincides with the first "Population Influx" consequent of the human migrations from the continent. Instead, Prehistorical samples of some populations, keep some archaic characters after Iron Age (Historical Era) the "Population Continuity" (consequent of the cohabitation and alternations of the several Mediterranean populations) from Antiquity to Middle Ages produced a progressive increase of variability without big variation among Eigenvalue and Principal Component. The absence of internal relationship caused by the intricate colonization period is on the contrary present on Prehistorichal sample on which we can find a clear variation between the PC. Correlations between "Population Influx" and Variability are also observable on the influence of Islamic settlers on the Indigenous during the Middle Ages. However, the wide variability and the homogenous morphospace showed by these groups and the Contemporary resulted in no well-defined populations.[CA] Durant els últims 200.000 anys, l'espècie humana s'ha estés per tota la Terra, adaptant la seua morfologia i fisiologia a una àmplia varietat d'hàbitats. Per tant, l'esquelet humà ha registrat els principals efectes ambientals. Hui les modernes tècniques d'investigacions quantitatives de les principals característiques morfològiques ens permeten relacionar-les amb la variabilitat genètica. La posició geogràfica de la Sicília, el seu aïllament i la seua llarga i dinàmica història de colonització han creat un context peculiar que permet un estudi antropològic únic, útil per a extraure informació important sobre el "Flux Migratori" i "Influència Població". Aquest projecte es basa en l'anàlisi antropològica d'ossos humans de diferents poblacions des del Paleolític fins a l'Edat Contemporània. Les tècniques d'Anàlisis de Geometria Morfomètrica (reconstrucció 3D) i Anàlisi Estadística Multivariante s'han aplicat en tres caràcters esquelètics diferents (Dents, Cranis i Alçada). L'objectiu del projecte és realitzar una anàlisi àmplia de la Biodiversitat Humana Siciliana amb la finalitat de: - Analitzar dades odontométricos 2D amb tècniques multivariades per a explorar les relacions entre pobles entre els segles. - Utilitzar models 3D i la morfometria craniofacial per a estudiar la complexa variabilitat morfològica relacionada amb els fluxos migratoris. - Avaluar la tendència secular de l'alçada. - Utilitzar aquests tres caràcters per a proporcionar una descripció general de la Biodiversitat Humana a Sicília. Això treball denota la confiabilitat dels mètodes utilitzats i, com en un estudi de la biodiversitat, diversos caràcters són indispensables per a comprendre el procés evolutiu. Les dades també demostren la correlació entre els caràcters morfològics i la influència (no sols per factors ambientals) dels fluxos humans sobre el fenotip. Els resultats mostren clarament que tots els caràcters avaluats estan involucrats al mateix temps en el mateix procés de diversificació. Les variacions morfològiques mostren una disminució general del prognatisme maxil·lar i una lleugera mesocefalilización amb el crani que es converteix en més estret i lleugerament i menys allargat i la cara més ampla i tala. Sempre considerant la influència de la relació grandària/composició, de la mostra, tant l'anàlisi estadística canònica com multivariat donen suport a la teoria que la poblacion del Paleolític Superior de Sant Teodoro podria ser raonablement la primera evidència de colonització humana a Sicília (aquesta teoria també és secundada de la mostra Mesolítica que s'agrupa separada). Són significatius els períodes del Bronze i de la transició Bronze/Ferro en els quals assistim a importants canvis morfològics (Dents, Cranis i Alçada) a causa dels constants i numèricament significatius "Fluxos Migratoris". Aquesta variació coincideix exactament amb els primers "Fluxos de Població" estables com a conseqüència de les migracions humanes des del continent. No obstant això, les mostres Prehistòriques d'algunes poblacions conserven algunes característiques arcaiques fins i tot després de l'Edat del Ferro (Era Històrica) mentre la "Continuïtat de la Població" (resultant de la coexistència i alternança de la colonizacion) des de l'Antiguitat fins a l'Edat mitjana va produir una major progressiva variabilitat sense però major variació entre Eignevalue i Components Principals. L'absència de relació interna causada per l'intricat període de colonització està present, en contrero, en la mostra prehistòrica en la qual hi ha una clara variació entre les Components Principals. Les correlacions entre l' "Afluència de Població" i la Variabilitat també es poden observar en la influència dels colons Islàmics sobre els indígenos durant l'Edat mitjana. No obstant això, l'àmplia variabilitat i el morfoespacio homogeni mostren que poblacions ben definides no són recognoscibles després d'aquests grups (fins als contemporanis).Thanks to: Dr. Francesa Spatafora (Archaeological Museum “A. Salinas”, Palermo, Sicily, Italy), Dr. Maria Grazia Griffo (Archaeological Museum “Baglio Anselmi”. Marsala, Sicily, Italy) , Dr. Maria Amalia Mastelloni (Archaeological Museum “Bernabò-Brea", Aeolian Island, Sicily, Italy) and Dr. Carolina Di Patti (Geological University Museum of Palermo “Gemmellaro”, Sicily, Italy) for the authorization to study the materials. Thanks to Prof. Armando González Martín, Prof. Oscar Cambra-Moo Laboratorio de Poblaciones del Pasado (LAPP), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain) for the invaluable help. Thanks to the Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva Humana (LEEH) - Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina), to all the laboratoy directors to provide the modern specimens of reference sample. Thanks to the Mayor Mr. Domenico Giannopolo, the council member of cultural heritage Mrs. Nieta Gennuso and Dr. Filippo Ianni (Municipality of Caltavuturo, Sicily, Italy) for the excavation seasons and the authorization to study the materials. To the Museum of Mozia. (Sicily, Italy), The Whitaker foundation and Dr. Pamela Toti for the authorization to study the materials. To the Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Palermo. (Sicily, Italy) Dr. Stefano Vassallo and Dr. Maria Grazia Cucco for the opportunity of the excavations in Caltavuturo and authorization to study the materials. Thanks to the Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Trapani. (Sicily, Italy), Soprintendente and Dr. Rossella Giglio, Township Museum of Mussomeli. (Sicily, Italy), and Prof. Erich Kistler and Dr. Nicole Mölk (University of Innsbruck, Austria, Innsbruck) for the authorization to study the materials.Lauria, G. (2020). The Human Biodiversity in the Middle of the Mediterranean. Study of native and settlers populations on the Sicilian context [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/159789TESI

Unraveling the population history of the Xiongnu to explain molecular and archaeological models of prehistoric Mongolia

This dissertation explores the prehistory of Mongolia during a time when nomadic tribes created the world\u27s first steppe empire in Inner Asia. These aggregated tribes, known to Chinese historians as Xiongnu, ruled from the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. They came to define steppe polity construction later used by the Mongol Empire under the reign of Chinggis Khan. These nomads moved extensively over the eastern steppe and interacted, both in trade and intermarriage, with peoples from southern Siberia to Xinjiang. However, the Xiongnu as a people are relatively unknown to scholars since they did not possess a written language of their own. Although analysis on ancient skeletal remains of the Xiongnu have opened new avenues of research into their origins, scholars still do not have a comprehensive understanding of these ancient nomads. This study makes an attempt to elucidate questions of the Xiongnu\u27s history and biological structure by examining craniofacial diversity using a methodology known as geometric morphometrics. Using a suite of multivariate statistical analyses to explain group relationships within and among the Xiongnu to groups in the region, this study explains the origins of the Xiongnu in a biological context and makes inferences about genetic exchanges. A quantitative genetic model is used to test group relationships and infer levels of gene flow between groups. Results indicate the Xiongnu were composed of at least two biologically distinct groups. One sample from an elite cemetery in northern Mongolia shares their ancestry with a Bronze Age population from Mongolia, and possibly, to a later migration of Turks, who came to dominate the eastern steppe between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Xiongnu also evidence biological similarity with nomads who composed the Mongol Empire, modern-day Mongolians, and some Siberian groups. These results are similar to genetic studies suggesting a mix of Eastern and Western Eurasian haplogroups while also achieving consensus with models of steppe polity formation proposed by archaeologists, who suggest local ties to extra-local groups through interactive exchange networks. Overall, the Xiongnu nomads are very much a part of Mongolia\u27s past with links to its modern peoples

Statistical Modelling of Craniofacial Shape

With prior knowledge and experience, people can easily observe rich shape and texture variation for a certain type of objects, such as human faces, cats or chairs, in both 2D and 3D images. This ability helps us recognise the same person, distinguish different kinds of creatures and sketch unseen samples of the same object class. The process of capturing this prior knowledge is mathematically interpreted as statistical modelling. The outcome is a morphable model, a vector space representation of objects, that captures the variation of shape and texture. This thesis presents research aimed at constructing 3DMMs of craniofacial shape and texture using new algorithms and processing pipelines to offer enhanced modelling abilities over existing techniques. In particular, we present several fully automatic modelling approaches and apply them to a large dataset of 3D images of the human head, the Headspace dataset, thus generating the first public shape-and- texture 3D Morphable Model (3DMM) of the full human head. We call this the Liverpool-York Head Model, reflecting the data collection and statistical modelling respectively. We also explore the craniofacial symmetry and asymmetry in template morphing and statistical modelling. We propose a Symmetry-aware Coherent Point Drift (SA-CPD) algorithm, which mitigates the tangential sliding problem seen in competing morphing algorithms. Based on the symmetry-constrained correspondence output of SA-CPD, we present a symmetry-factored statistical modelling method for craniofacial shape. Also, we propose an iterative process of refinement for a 3DMM of the human ear that employs data augmentation. Then we merge the proposed 3DMMs of the ear with the full head model. As craniofacial clinicians like to look at head profiles, we propose a new pipeline to build a 2D morphable model of the craniofacial sagittal profile and augment it with profile models from frontal and top-down views. Our models and data are made publicly available online for research purposes

Description-based visualisation of ethnic facial types

This study reports on the design and evaluation of a tool to assist in the description and visualisation of the human face and variations in facial shape and proportions characteristic of different ethnicities. A comprehensive set of local shape features (sulci, folds, prominences, slopes, fossae, etc.) which constitute a visually-discernible ‘vocabulary’ for facial description. Each such feature has one or more continuous-valued attributes, some of which are dimensional and correspond directly to conventional anthropometric distance measurements between facial landmarks, while other attributes capture the shape or topography of that given feature. These attributes, distributed over six facial regions (eyes, nose, etc.), control a morphable model of facial shape that can approximate individual faces as well as the averaged faces of various ethnotypes. Clues to ethnic origin are often more effectively conveyed by shape attributes than through differences in anthropometric measurements due to large individual differences in facial dimensions within each ethnicity. Individual faces of representative ethnicities (European, East Asian, etc.) can then be modelled to establish the range of variation of the attributes (each represented by a corresponding three-dimensional ‘basis shape’). These attributes are designed to be quasi-orthogonal, in that the model can assume attribute values in arbitrary combination with minimal undesired interaction. They thus can serve as the basis of a set of dimensions or degrees of freedom. The space of variation in facial shape defines an ethnicity face space (EFS), suitable for the human appreciation of facial variation across ethnicities, in contrast to a conventional identity face space (IFS) intended for automated detection of individual faces out of a sample set of faces from a single, homogeneous population. The dimensions comprising an IFS are based on holistic measurements and are usually not interpretable in terms of local facial dimensions or shape (i.e., they are not ‘semantic’). In contrast, for an EFS to facilitate our understanding of ethnic variation across faces (as opposed to ethnicity recognition) the underlying dimensions should correspond to visibly-discernible attributes. A shift from quantitative landmark-based anthropometric comparisons to local shape comparisons is demonstrated. Ethnic variation can be visually appreciated by observing the changes in a model through animation. These changes can be tracked at different levels of complexity: across the whole face, by selected facial region, by isolated feature, and by isolated attribute of a given feature. This study demonstrates that an intuitive feature set, derived by artistically-informed visual observation, can provide a workable descriptive basis. While neither mathematically-complete nor strictly orthogonal, the feature space permits close surface fits between the morphable model and face scan data. This study is intended for the human visual appreciation of facial shape, the characteristics of differing ethnicities, and the quantification of those differences. It presumes a basic understanding of the standard practices in digital facial animation

Assessing the accuracy of the zygoma for estimating ancestry using geometric morphometrics in a South African sample

The large number of unidentified, decomposed and skeletonised remains found in South Africa (SA) necessitates relevant and reliable methods to assist in victim identification. Ancestry estimation from unknown skeletal remains is essential when reconstructing a demographic profile of a missing person. In the SA population, estimating ancestry is problematic as standards developed internationally rarely apply to the local, biologically heterogenous population. Craniofacial morphology is known to be ancestrally distinct and studies are yet to explore shape and size variation in the zygomatic bone of the SA population. The aim of this study was to assess ancestral variation in zygomatic shape and size in a SA population using three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses. A sample of 158 individuals were analysed from Bantu-speaking (BA), European (EA) and Mixed Ancestral (MA) South African groups. Males were larger in size than females, but no size differences were observed between ancestral groups. Significant shape differences were observed between ancestral groups, while none were observed between males and females. BA and MA individuals had narrower, shorter and more anteriorly projecting zygomas than EA individuals. The zygoma was shown to accurately distinguish EA (84%) from BA (81%), and MA (80%) from EA (68%) individuals, but unreliably distinguished BA (60%) from MA (66%) individuals. This is likely correlated to the historical peopling of SA and historical forced racial classification. Age-related changes and antemortem tooth loss did not confound the ancestral variation in size, despite minor changes in zygomatic shape being associated with these two factors. These confounders did not impact ancestry estimation accuracies, further suggesting a minor impact on overall zygomatic shape. Furthermore, the patterning of ancestral variation in the zygoma revealed the need for further research to distinguish between the biologically heterogenous ancestral groups in SA

Social Organisation and the Rise of Civilisation in the Mun River Valley, Thailand

As one of the most extensively excavated and archaeologically interesting areas of Thailand, the Upper Mun River valley is central to archaeologists‘ interpretations of Southeast Asian prehistory. In this area there is demonstrable growth in social complexity from first occupation to eventual annexation by the state society of Angkor in the mid first millennium AD. The exact nature of social evolution, however, is still not fully understood. Debate rages over the factors upon which social stratification was based, whether hierarchy or heterarchy was in place, the timing of agricultural intensification and impact of external populations. In this thesis isotopic studies are combined with osteological indicators of kinship and population affinity to shed light on these and other archaeological problems which remain unanswered in the Upper Mun River Valley. Isotopic analysis has allowed the identification of migrants in the cemetery of Ban Non Wat, and shown changes in subsistence strategy through time relating to the onset of social inequality and climate change. Analysis of cranial shape has shown that most migrant individuals have similar genetic backgrounds to local people, but with the notable exception of one of the only adult jar burials at the site. The combination of dental non-metric techniques, isotopic analysis and cranial shape analysis has also added evidence to the debates over the presence of hunter-gatherers at the site, and the nature of social organization

The correlation between static and dynamic facial dysmorphology in unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP)

Objective – The objective of this study was to assess the correlation between static (3D) facial dysmorphology at both rest and maximum smile and dynamic (4D) facial dysmorphology as represented by the frame of maximum asymmetry during a maximum smile in unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP). When maximum asymmetry occurs during a maximum smile was also analysed. Design and setting – This study was designed as a retrospective cross-sectional study utilising quantitative methodology to assess a cohort of patients with a diagnosis of non-syndromic unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP). Patients had 4D imaging carried out at Glasgow Dental Hospital and School for audit purposes and as part of their routine care by the local cleft team working under the Managed Clinical Network (MCN) Cleft Care Scotland. Materials and Methods – Thirty-one (31) patients between the ages of 13 to 17 years old with a diagnosis of non-syndromic unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) had 4D images based on passive stereophotogrammetry captured at 60 frames per second (fps). Each patient was captured performing a maximum smile three times over a three second window. Data processing involved the conformation of a generic mesh containing over 7000 vertices or quasi-landmarks to the facial surface before tracking all the vertices during the facial expression. Partial ordinary Procrustes analysis was utilised to calculate an asymmetry score for each frame during the expression. The rest frame (3D), frame of maximum smile (3D), and frame of maximum asymmetry (4D) were used to determine the correlation between static and dynamic facial dysmorphology. Results – Asymmetry scores were higher at maximum smile than at rest and maximum asymmetry was most frequently observed during the relaxation phase following a maximum facial expression (N=27/31; 87.1%). Asymmetry scores for maximum smile were less than but comparable to maximum asymmetry scores. Static (3D) asymmetry at rest and maximum smile was strongly correlated to dynamic (4D) facial asymmetry represented by the frame of maximum asymmetry during a maximum smile. The strongest correlation was seen with analysis using the frame of maximum smile focussing on the nasolabial region. Conclusions – The use of 4D imaging combined with mesh conformation and dense correspondence analysis provides a valid objective measure of facial asymmetry. The fact that asymmetry scores for maximum smile were less than but comparable to maximum asymmetry scores highlights that assessment of facial asymmetry at maximum smile is still a valid assessment of facial dysmorphology despite not depicting the full extent of the asymmetry. Static (3D) asymmetry at rest and maximum smile is strongly correlated to; and likely highly predictive of, dynamic (4D) facial asymmetry represented by the frame of maximum asymmetry during a maximum smile. The strongest correlation is seen with analysis using the frame of maximum smile focussing on the nasolabial region. Future research could use linear regression modelling to predict dynamic (4D) asymmetry scores using static (3D) images