Characterization and identification of hypotensive, immunomodulatory, and metabolic disorder benefiting peptides from Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) hydrolysate separated based on molecular weight, charge, and hydrophobicity

L'hypertension artérielle est l'un des principaux facteurs de risque de syndrome cardiométabolique. En outre, l'inflammation chronique de bas grade joue également un rôle important dans la pathogenèse du syndrome. Il existe un lien entre l'apparition de la résistance à l 'insuline et l'hypertension qui peut initier le diabète de type 2 et l'obésité. Des peptides bioactifs terrestres et marins, des biomolécules de poissons en particulier, ont démontré des effets immunomodulateurs puissants ainsi que des effets hypotenseurs potentiels dans le traitement de ces facteurs de risque et de leurs complications associées. Notre hypothèse était que les fractions d'hydrolysat protéique de maquereau de l’Atlantique (Scromber scombrus) possèdent une activité biologique bénéfique sur l'hypertension. Le but de notre travail était de fractionner et d'identifier des peptides antihypertenseurs, immunomodulateurs et antiMetS basés sur diverses caractéristiques moléculaires de charge, de polarité et de taille. Les fractions ont été produites en utilisant la technique d'extraction en phase solide chromatographique (SPE), l'ultrafiltration baromembranaire (UF) et l'électrodialyse conditions expérimentales étaient l’utilisation des pH avec membrane UF (EDUF). Les 3, 6, 9, et des membranes de seuils de coupure (MWCO) de < 20 kDa pour l’EDUF et de MWCO de < 1 kDa pour l’UF. Selon nos résultats, parmi toutes les fractions hydrophobes obtenues par SPE il y avait une fraction ayant un effet antihypertenseur important, de 5 µg, et possédant des peptides antidémontrant une inhibition de 50% à une quantité inflammatoires, ayant une inhibition de 17% à une quantité de 10 µg de protéines. Par rapport au témoin négatif (Lipopolysaccharide) les peptides anioniques et cationiques des fractions d’EDUF à pH3 ainsi que l'hydrolysat de maquereau ont démontré des effets pro antiACE et anti-- inflammatoires significatifs jusqu'à 27%. La fraction inflammatoire la plus puissante était riche en acides aminés à chaîne latérale ramifiée et hydrophobe mais avait moins d’acides aminés chargés par rapport aux fractions proinflammatoires EDUF. Toutes les séquences possibles identifiées dans cette fraction sont courtes et ont des valeurs GRAVY positives. Cependant, l'hydrolysat et la fraction positivement du pH3 n'ont pas exercé d'effet antichargée MetS significatif chez les souris nourries au régime hypercalorique. En conclusion, la polarité et la charge de la fraction du maquereau de l’Atlantique sont les facteurs les plus importants pour l' immunomodulation et l'activité hypotensive des peptides. De plus, ces facteurs n'étaient pas suffisants pour réguler les déficiences métaboliques chez les souris obèses et résistantes à l'insuline induites par le régime alimentaire. Par conséquent, la compréhension du mécanisme d'action et la caractérisation approfondie des fractions bioactives seraient nécessaires pour une conclusion définitive et une application clinique du matériel.While, on the one hand, high blood pressure is one of the main risk factors of cardiometabolic syndrome, on the other hand, chronic low-grade inflammation similarly plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of the syndrome. Moreover, there is a link between the occurrence of insulin resistance and hypertension consequently initiating type 2 diabetes and obesity. Interestingly, terrestrial, and marine bioactive peptides, in particular fish biomolecules, have been reported as potent immunomodulators and or hypotensive material in the treatment of these risk factors and associated complications. Hence, our hypothesis was that Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) protein hydrolysate fractions possess beneficial biological activity on hypertension, inflammation, and other Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) factors. The aim of our work was to fractionate and identify antihypertensive, immunomodulating and anti-MetS peptides based on various molecule characteristics of charge, polarity, and size. Fractions were produced using chromatographic Solid Phase Extraction technique (SPE), pressure driven-Ultra Filtration (UF) and Electrodialysis with UF membrane (EDUF) under experimental conditions of pH 3, 6 and 9 with MWCO of < 1 kDa and < 20 kDa, respectively. According to the results of our in-vitro analysis the highly hydrophobic fraction of SPE was a potent antihypertensive, 50% inhibition at 5 µg, and anti-inflammatory product, 17% inhibition at 10 µg of protein, among all. Furthermore, in comparison to the negative control (Lipopolysaccharide), anionic and cationic peptides of pH3 EDUF as well as mackerel hydrolysate demonstrated significant pro-inflammatory effects up to 27%. The most potent anti-ACE and anti-inflammatory fraction was rather branched chain and hydrophobic amino acid rich with lesser charged amino acids compared to the EDUF pro-inflammatory fractions. All the identified possible sequences of the same fraction had rather small molecular mass with positive GRAVY values. Selected material, the hydrolysate and positively charged fraction of pH3, however, did not exert any significant anti-MetS effect in hypercaloric diet fed obese insulin resistant rats. In conclusion, polarity and charge of a fraction were the most important factors for immunomodulation and hypotensive activity of Atlantic mackerel peptides. Nevertheless, those factors were not sufficient enough to regulate metabolic impairments in diet-induced obese and insulin resistant rats. Accordingly, understanding the mechanism of action and thorough characterization of bioactive fractions would be required for a definite conclusion and clinical application of the material

Screening and purification of bioactive peptides with potential to activate the cholecystokinin receptor type 1

Obesity is a world-wide health problem with tremendous health care costs. Weight maintenance is a complex system in which different mechanisms are involved. One of these mechanisms involves the cholecystokinin receptor type 1 (CCK1R). The CCK1R is a GPCR (G-protein coupled receptor) localized in the gastrointestinal tract that induces a feeling of satiety upon activation by its natural hormone cholecystokinin (CCK). Bioactive peptides, which can be released from food protein, can mimic the effect of CCK and have an influence on satiety. Such peptides could be used as a satiating ingredient in the development of new functional foods for the prevention and treatment of obesity. We set up a cell-based bioassay in 96 well-plates to screen for such bioactive peptides that can activate the CCK1R, based on the fluorescent visualization of a Ca-flux when the receptor is activated. Fluorescence measurements were done using a plate reader and a confocal microscope and the assay was benchmarked with CCK-8S (sulfated octapeptide), JMV-180 and lorglumide. The confocal microscope appeared to be the preferred measuring device when complex samples had to be measured, as measurements with the plate reader could easily be biased by background fluorescence of the sample. Screening of different food protein hydrolysates showed that some food protein hydrolysates , such as soy protein hydrolysates, possess significant CCK1R activity. The peptides in the active soy protein hydrolysates were separated by use of size exclusion chromatography, the CCK1R activity of the resulting fractions was re-evaluated and significant in vitro CCK1R activity was found. The effect on food intake of the active fractions with a physiological relevant molecular weight was evaluated in vivo with rats, but no significant effect could be measured. The amino acid sequences of the peptides present in some promising fractions was identified, however it remained not possible to identify which particular peptide(s) accounted for the CCK1R activity as more than 100 peptides were still present in the fractions. Hence, a highly-selective tool to extract and identify the active peptides was necessary. Therefore, a first onset was made to incorporate the CCK1R into NABBs (nanoscale apo-lipoprotein bound bilayer particles), a unique native-like bilayer membrane system for incorporation of GPCRs, as such nanoparticles could be used as an affinity-selection-mass spectrometry technique to identify CCK1R-binding peptides. Functional incorporation of the CCK1R in NABBs was shown by binding with a fluorescent labeled CCK analog

Assessment of blue whiting protein hydrolysate bioactivities using cell culture models

Low-value underutilised blue whiting fish represents a potential profitable source of protein for the generation of high-value, health-enhancing fractions. The research described in this thesis assessed the bioactive potential of blue whiting soluble protein hydrolysates (BWSPHs) using cellular model systems. Minced, deboned blue whiting was initially hydrolysed at laboratory scale to develop a protocol for the reproducible generation of eleven different BWSPHs. Cellular bioactivity analysis of these eleven hydrolysates indicated that none of the BWSPHs tested exhibited satiating activity, antioxidant activity, immunomodulatory activity or anti-obesity activity as measured using specific cellular models. However, six BWSPHs did exhibit anti-diabetic activity in vitro, therefore, these six BWSPHs were prepared at semi-pilot scale and all of the above bioactivities were reassessed in greater detail. The antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities of the six industrial-scale BWSPHs before simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID) (BW-SPH-A to BW-SPH-F) and after SGID (BW-SPH-A-GI to BW-SPH-F-GI) were assessed in stimulated murine RAW264.7 macrophage. Hydrolysate BW-SPH-A (0.5%, w/v dw), both pre- and post-SGID, increased the endogenous antioxidant, reduced glutathione (GSH), in tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBOOH)-treated cells and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) in H2O2-challenged RAW264.7 cells compared with stimulated controls (p<0.05). In vitro digested hydrolysate BW-SPH-F-GI (0.5%, w/v dw) induced immunostimulating effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 macrophages though increasing pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels compared with the LPS-stimulated control (p<0.05). The satiating potential of the six BWSPHs was then assessed in murine enteroendocrine STC-1 cells. The ability of BWSPHs and SGID BWSPHs to modulate the secretion and/or production of satiety hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide YY (PYY) in STC-1 cells was studied as well as the signalling pathway activated by BWSPHs to modulate the secretion of these hormones. All BWSPHs (BW-SPH-A to BW-SPH-F) (1.0%, w/v dw) increased active GLP-1 secretion and proglucagon production in STC-1 cells compared to the basal control (Krebs-Ringer buffer) (p<0.05), possibly via intracellular calcium signalling, however this activity was lost following SGID. In addition, neither pre- nor post-SGID hydrolysates affected epithelial barrier integrity or stimulated IL-6 secretion in differentiated Caco-2/HT-29MTX co-cultured cells. The anti-obesity effects of BWSPHs and SGID BWSPHs was investigated using the murine 3T3-L1 cell line. Before SGID, hydrolysates BW-SPH-A, -B, -C and -F (1.0%, w/v dw) reduced triglyceride accumulation during preadipocyte differentiation (p<0.05), however none of the hydrolysates hydrolysed triglycerides in fully mature adipocytes. Interestingly, after SGID, all hydrolysates reduced triglyceride accumulation during differentiation and all except one BWSPH increased glycerol levels in mature adipocytes compared with the differentiated controls (p<0.05). Two anti-adipogenic hydrolysates, BW-SPH-A and BW-SPH-F, and their corresponding in vitro digests were observed to modulate triglyceride accumulation during preadipocyte differentiation via down-regulating the expression of key adipogenic transcription factors (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR)-γ and CAAT (controlled amino acid therapy)/ enhancer binding protein (C/EBP)-α) compared with the differentiated controls (p<0.05). These SGID hydrolysates also exhibited anti-obesity activities following simulated intestinal permeation. After a 4 h exposure of specific SGID BWSPHs to 21-day differentiated Caco-2/HT-29MTX co-cultured cells, cell basolateral was subsequently observed to exhibit anti-adipogenic and adipolytic activities in 3T3-L1 cellular models. In addition, exposure of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes to hydrolysate BW-SPH-A during differentiation also increased GSH concentration upon stimulation with antioxidant tBOOH compared with the tBOOH control (p<0.05). Specific BWSPHs were also observed to reduced adiponectin production in LPS-stimulated cells compared with the LPS control (p<0.05). To conclude, certain BWSPHs exhibited significant bioactivities before SGID, after SGID, and after simulated intestinal absorption, therefore may have potential as health-enhancing functional food ingredients

Hydrolyse av restråstoff fra Atlantisk laks (Salmo salar) : effekt av prosessbetingelser og evaluering av hydrolysat i fôr til kylling og smågris

Annually Norway produces 1.3 million tons of Atlantic salmon and the levels of production are still rising. After withdrawal of eviscerated fish and filet, 336 000 tons of rest raw material are available for further processing. About 50% of the rest raw material from aquaculture in Norway is used to produce a semisolid fluid called salmon-silage supplying the animal feed industry, where it is known to be rich in marine proteins and oil. It is however possible to increase the value of this rest raw material by milder processes e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis, allowing to recover proteins and extract oil in order to supply the market with higher value products with desired features. The general goal when utilizing rest raw material from aquaculture is to exploit valuable marine proteins and oil, and increase the sustainability in both aquaculture and livestock production. The enzymatic hydrolysis process is achieved by activity of enzymes at certain temperature for a defined time. During the hydrolysis process, smaller peptides and free amino acids are formed and solubilized in an aqueous phase called salmon protein hydrolysate (SPH). Hydrolysates containing peptides are shown to be more efficiently absorbed in the small intestine in comparison to both intact protein and free amino acids. In addition, hydrolysates from marine sources have good functional and bioactive properties. Broiler chickens and piglets are more prone to small intestinal dysfunction linked to retarded growth and enteric diseases the first 14 days, post-hatch and post-weaning respectively. Traditionally in Norway, fishmeal is used during these periods, as the content of easily digestible protein with a well-balanced amino acid composition is high in fishmeal. The content of peptides in the hydrolysates are thought to improve intestinal function and intestinal health that are important for high utilization of feed, improved growth and disease resistance. The overall aim of this study was to develop protein feed ingredient(s) from Atlantic salmon rest raw materials with higher nutritional value than fishmeal for inclusion in feed formulations for broiler chickens and piglets. One experiment evaluated the influence of process conditions during hydrolysis of salmon rest raw material on hydrolysate yield and composition, while two other experiments evaluated the influence of salmon protein hydrolysate in diets for broiler chickens and piglets on growth performance, intestinal morphometry, and ileal microbiota (piglets only). This study has shown that unstable and traditionally low value viscera-containing raw materials are possible to utilize in an effective way when care is taken during the whole process from slaughter to hydrolysis. Two different starting materials were used as substrates for enzymatic hydrolysis, in addition, initial oil withdrawal and initial heat inactivation of the endogenous enzymes were performed on one starting material. We found that the composition of starting material reflected the proximal composition of the hydrolysate, as high lipid content in the raw material tended to increase the lipid content in the hydrolysate at the expense of crude protein content. Initial heat inactivation of the endogenous enzymes dramatically influenced the yield, as no hydrolysis seemed to take place after the addition of papain and bromelain. Mild thermal treatment (40°C) to facilitate oil withdrawal before hydrolysis of viscera with addition of papain and bromelain, resulted in high quality of the withdrawn oil, and no significant difference in SPH yield or protein recovery. Small differences were observed in the SPH on yield, protein recovery, the degree of hydrolysis, amino acid composition, nutritional value or number of different bioactive peptides detected when the commercial enzymes, Protamex and papain plus bromelain, were used on the same starting material. Additionally, hydrolysates from hydrolysis of viscera with only endogenous enzymes performed similarly to the afore-mentioned measures, but contained more lipids and was more bitter in comparison to hydrolysates from viscera obtained by addition of commercial enzymes. In the broiler chicken experiment, two hydrolysates from viscera were produced, one by use of only endogenous enzymes and one with the addition of the commercial enzymes papain plus bromelain in mixture. The hydrolysates were included with 5% and 10% (50% and 100% exchange for fishmeal protein) in both the starter and grower diets for broiler chickens. In addition, one fishmeal diet (FM) and one plant protein-based diet (PP) were included as controls. Inclusion of SPH in the starter diet significantly increased the average daily gain (ADG) in comparison to the control diets (FM and PP). Morphometric analysis, at day 10, showed increased duodenal villus height and tendencies to increased ileal villus height and villus absorption area when marine proteins were included in the diets in comparison to the plant protein-based diet. The improved small intestinal development may favor growth performance at older ages, which corresponds well to the observed increase of ADG in broiler chickens fed marine protein diets in comparison to the PP diet during the grower period. In the piglet experiment, two hydrolysates were produced without addition of commercial enzymes, one from viscera and one from a mixture of viscera, heads and frames. Two diets were included 10% SPH in exchange for fishmeal protein, one diet was included fishmeal (FM) and one diet was based on plant protein (PP). Piglets did not show differences in growth performance during the first 11 days or for the overall period for any of the diets. In addition, only small differences were detected in the ileal microbiota community, although, an inverse correlation was shown between the genera Turicibacter and Lactobacillus, which together comprised most of the ileal bacterial genera. The piglets fed diets containing marine proteins showed increased duodenal villus absorption area and tendencies to increased duodenal villus height at day 11, in comparison to piglets fed the PP diet. In both broiler chickens and piglets we found a significant positive correlation between duodenal villus height and ADG during the first 10 days post-hatch and 11 days post-weaning, respectively, indicating the importance of intestinal development and maintenance in both broiler chickens and piglets for growth performance. In conclusion, enzymatic hydrolysis seem to be a feasible way to extract nutritional valuable proteins and peptides from Atlantic salmon rest raw materials. Salmon protein hydrolysates are found to be an excellent novel source of proteins with high nutritional value and potentially positive effects on intestinal development and maintenance.Norge har en økende produksjon av Atlantisk laks og produserer årlig 1,3 millioner tonn. Etter sløying og filetering er 336 000 tonn restråstoff tilgjengelig for videre bearbeidelse. Omtrent 50% av restråstoffet som oppstår ved slakting av laks i Norge blir syrekonservert til et produkt kalt lakseensilasje, som hovedsakelig brukes som råvare i fôrindustrien. Imidlertid er det mulig å øke verdien av lakserestråstoffet og produsere mer høyverdige produkter ved mer skånsom og styrt prosessering som f.eks. enzymatisk hydrolyse. Det overordnede målet ved utnyttelse av restråstoff fra lakseoppdrettsnæringen er å utvinne verdifulle marine proteiner og olje, samt å øke bærekraften i både akvakulturnæringen og i husdyrproduksjonen. Enzymatisk hydrolyse oppnås med enzymatisk aktivitet ved en gitt temperatur over en definert tid. Under hydrolyseprosessen blir proteinet brutt ned til små peptider og frie aminosyrer i en vandig løsning kalt lakseproteinhydrolysat (SPH). Det er vist at hydrolysater som inneholder peptider blir absorbert mer effektivt i tarmen sammenlignet med både intakt protein og frie aminosyrer. I tillegg har marine peptider gode funksjonelle og bioaktive egenskaper. Kylling og smågris er mer utsatt for fordøyelsesforstyrrelser og redusert vekst i løpet av de første 14 dagene etter henholdsvis klekking og avvenning. Tradisjonelt er fiskemel brukt i fôret i disse periodene da innholdet av lettfordøyelig protein med en velbalansert aminosyre-sammensetning er høyt i fiskemel. Generelt mener en at marine proteinhydrolysater og dermed peptider i dyrefôr kan bedre både tarmfunksjon og tarmhelse som igjen er viktig for en høy utnyttelsesgrad av fôret, økt tilvekst og motstandskraft mot sykdom. Målet med denne studien var å utvikle proteinråvare(r) basert på restråstoff fra lakseoppdrett med høyere næringsverdi enn fiskemel til bruk i fôr til kylling og smågris. Ett eksperiment evaluerte effekten av ulike prosessbetingelser under hydrolyse av lakserestråstoff med tanke på utbytte og sammensetning av hydrolysatet, mens to andre eksperimenter undersøkte effekten av hydrolysat i fôr til kylling og smågris med tanke på vekstparametre, tarmmorfometri og ileal mikrobiota (kun smågris). Studiet har vist at ustabilt restråstoff med tradisjonelt lav verdi kan utnyttes på en effektiv måte ved kontrollert håndtering under hele prosessen fra slakt til hydrolyse. To ulike restråstoff ble brukt som substrat for enzymatisk hydrolyse. På ett av restråstoffene ble det i tillegg ekstrahert olje og gjennomført varmeinaktivering av de endogene enzymene. Sammensetningen av restråstoffet reflekterte sammensetningen i hydrolysatet, ettersom høyt fettinnhold i restråstoffet tenderte til høyere fettinnhold i hydrolysatet på bekostning av proteininnholdet. Varmeinaktivering av de endogene enzymene hadde stor påvirkning på utbytte av hydrolysatet ettersom det ikke så ut til å skje noen hydrolyse etter tilsetting av papain pluss bromelain. Moderat oppvarming (40 °C) av slo for å lette ekstraksjon av olje før hydrolyse med papain og bromelain, resulterte i høy kvalitet på den ekstraherte oljen og ingen signifikant forskjell i utbytte av hydrolysat eller gjenfinning av protein i hydrolysatet. Små forskjeller ble observert med hensyn til utbytte, gjenfinning av protein, hydrolysegrad, aminosyresammensetning, næringsverdi eller antall forskjellige bioaktive peptider i hydrolysatet når de kommersielle enzymene, Protamex og papain pluss bromelain, ble brukt på samme restråstoff. Hydrolyse av slo med kun endogene enzymer ga tilsvarende verdier i hydrolysatet på de ovenfor nevnte parameterne, men inneholdt mere fett og var mer bitter sammenlignet med hydrolysater produsert fra slo med kommersielle enzymer. I kyllingforsøket ble det brukt to ulike hydrolysater fra slo, ett produsert med kun endogene enzymer og ett med tilsetning av papain og bromelain. Hydrolysatene ble tilsatt med 5% og 10% (50% og 100% i bytte mot fiskemelprotein) i både start- og vekstfôr. I tillegg inngikk ett fôr med fiskemel (FM), og ett planteproteinbasert fôr (PP) som kontrollfôr. Kylling som ble fôret med startfôr inneholdende SPH hadde signifikant høyere gjennomsnittlig daglig tilvekst (ADG) sammenlignet med kylling fôret med kontrollfôr (FM og PP). Morfometrisk analyse, på dag 10, viste økt villi høyde i duodenum og tendenser til økt villi høyde og villi absorpsjonareal i ileum når marine proteiner inngikk i fôret sammenlignet med det planteproteinbaserte fôret. Den forbedrede tynntarmsutviklingen kan bidra til økt tilvekst senere, noe som samsvarer godt med den observerte økningen i tilvekst hos slaktekylling gitt fôr inneholdende marint protein i forhold til det planteproteinbaserte fôret under vekstperioden. I forsøket med smågris ble det brukt to ulike hydrolysater produsert uten bruk av kommersielle enzymer, ett fra slo og ett fra en blanding av slo, hode og rygg. To forsøksfôr inneholdt 10% SPH (100% i bytte mot fiskemelprotein), ett fôr inneholdt fiskemel (FM) og ett fôr var basert på planteprotein (PP). Det ble ikke funnet forskjeller mellom smågris gitt de forskjellige forsøksfôrene med hensyn til vekstparameterne, hverken i løpet av de første 11 dagene eller for hele forsøksperioden. I tillegg ble kun små forskjeller påvist i den ileale bakteriefloraen, selv om et ble funnet en signifikant invers korrelasjon mellom bakterieslektene Turicibacter og Lactobacillus, som sammen utgjorde størsteparten av bakterieslektene i ileum. Smågris som ble fôret med marine proteiner hadde større villi absorpsjonsareal og tendens til høyere villi i duodenum på dag 11, sammenlignet med smågris gitt det planteproteinbaserte fôret. Både hos kylling og gris ble det funnet en signifikant positiv korrelasjon mellom vill høyde i duodenum, og gjennomsnittlig daglig tilvekst i løpet av de første 10 dagene etter klekking og 11 dagene etter avvenning hos henholdsvis kylling og smågris. Dette indikerer betydningen av tarmutvikling og tarmmorfologi hos både kylling og smågris for tilvekst. På bakgrunn av dette studiet kan det konkluderes med at enzymatisk hydrolyse er en velegnet metode for å ekstrahere ernæringsmessige verdifulle proteiner og peptider av restråstoff fra Atlantisk laks. Lakseproteinhydrolysat synes å være en velegnet proteinkilde for kylling og gris med høy ernæringsmessig verdi og potensielle positive effekter på tarmutvikling og morfometri.Regional Research Found Mid-Norway, the National Research Council of Norway, and Felleskjøpet Fôrutviklin

Cheese and Whey

Cheese is an excellent and complex food matrix that preserves in concentrated form valuable milk constituents, such as proteins, minerals, vitamins, and biofunctional lipids. The formation of cheese mass requires the removal of whey, i.e., water and soluble milk substances—proteins, minerals, lactose, and vitamins. It is well known that whey, apart from being a serious environmental threat, is a valuable substrate for the formation of new products with excellent functional and biological activities. This reprint aims to share research related to (i) cheese production, ripening, and properties, and (ii) whey and whey components’ functionality and biological value, as well as whey exploitation and processing

Scientific Insights and Technological Advances in Gluten Free Products Development

This Special Issue addresses both new scientific insights and technological advances of gluten-free product development exploring alternative ingredients for the development of gluten-free products aiming to mimic the unique viscoelastic properties of gluten as a gas retention ingredient during fermentation, water binding and enabler of starch gelatinization on baking, and a bread flavor enhancer via gluten-related proteases

Scientific, Health and Social Aspects of the Food Industry

This book presents the wisdom, knowledge and expertise of the food industry that ensures the supply of food to maintain the health, comfort, and wellbeing of humankind. The global food industry has the largest market: the world population of seven billion people. The book pioneers life-saving innovations and assists in the fight against world hunger and food shortages that threaten human essentials such as water and energy supply. Floods, droughts, fires, storms, climate change, global warming and greenhouse gas emissions can be devastating, altering the environment and, ultimately, the production of foods. Experts from industry and academia, as well as food producers, designers of food processing equipment, and corrosion practitioners have written special chapters for this rich compendium based on their encyclopedic knowledge and practical experience. This is a multi-authored book. The writers, who come from diverse areas of food science and technology, enrich this volume by presenting different approaches and orientations

Food Additive

A food additive is defined as a substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food whether or not it has nutritive value. Food additives are natural or manufactured substances, which are added to food to restore colors lost during processing. They provide sweetness, prevent deterioration during storage and guard against food poisoning (preservatives). This book provides a review of traditional and non-traditional food preservation approaches and ingredients used as food additives. It also provides detailed knowledge for the evaluation of the agro-industrial wastes based on their great potential for the production of industrially relevant food additives. Furthermore the assessment of potential reproductive and developmental toxicity perspectives of some newly synthesized food additives on market has been covered. Finally, the identification of the areas relevant for future research has been pointed out indicating that there is more and more information needed to explore the possibility of the implementation of some other materials to be used as food additives

Fermentation – Processes, Benefits and Risks

This book covers a variety of topics in the field of fermentation processes. With evolving technology and increasing knowledge regarding the benefits and risks of distinct fermentation processes, new information is available on diverse topics in this broad field. Chapters present information on industrial applications of different fermentation processes and different aspects of fermented foods such as milk, cheese, coffee, and many others. The book compiles current, expert information useful to both students and researchers