Earlier visual N1 latencies in expert video-game players: a temporal basis of enhanced visuospatial performance.

Increasing behavioural evidence suggests that expert video game players (VGPs) show enhanced visual attention and visuospatial abilities, but what underlies these enhancements remains unclear. We administered the Poffenberger paradigm with concurrent electroencephalogram (EEG) recording to assess occipital N1 latencies and interhemispheric transfer time (IHTT) in expert VGPs. Participants comprised 15 right-handed male expert VGPs and 16 non-VGP controls matched for age, handedness, IQ and years of education. Expert VGPs began playing before age 10, had a minimum 8 years experience, and maintained playtime of at least 20 hours per week over the last 6 months. Non-VGPs had little-to-no game play experience (maximum 1.5 years). Participants responded to checkerboard stimuli presented to the left and right visual fields while 128-channel EEG was recorded. Expert VGPs responded significantly more quickly than non-VGPs. Expert VGPs also had significantly earlier occipital N1s in direct visual pathways (the hemisphere contralateral to the visual field in which the stimulus was presented). IHTT was calculated by comparing the latencies of occipital N1 components between hemispheres. No significant between-group differences in electrophysiological estimates of IHTT were found. Shorter N1 latencies may enable expert VGPs to discriminate attended visual stimuli significantly earlier than non-VGPs and contribute to faster responding in visual tasks. As successful video-game play requires precise, time pressured, bimanual motor movements in response to complex visual stimuli, which in this sample began during early childhood, these differences may reflect the experience and training involved during the development of video-game expertise, but training studies are needed to test this prediction

Combining computer game-based behavioural experiments with high-density EEG and infrared gaze tracking

Rigorous, quantitative examination of therapeutic techniques anecdotally reported to have been successful in people with autism who lack communicative speech will help guide basic science toward a more complete characterisation of the cognitive profile in this underserved subpopulation, and show the extent to which theories and results developed with the high-functioning subpopulation may apply. This study examines a novel therapy, the "Rapid Prompting Method" (RPM). RPM is a parent-developed communicative and educational therapy for persons with autism who do not speak or who have difficulty using speech communicatively.The technique aims to develop a means of interactive learning by pointing amongst multiple-choice options presented at different locations in space, with the aid of sensory "prompts" which evoke a response without cueing any specific response option. The prompts are meant to draw and to maintain attention to the communicative task–making the communicative and educational content coincident with the most physically salient, attention-capturing stimulus – and to extinguish the sensory–motor preoccupations with which the prompts compete.ideo-recorded RPM sessions with nine autistic children ages 8–14years who lacked functional communicative speech were coded for behaviours of interest

Distraction and mind-wandering under load

Attention research over the last several decades has provided rich insights into the determinants of distraction, including distractor characteristics, task features, and individual differences. Load Theory represented a particularly important breakthrough, highlighting the critical role of the level and nature of task-load in determining both the efficiency of distractor rejection and the stage of processing at which this occurs. However, until recently studies of distraction were restricted to those measuring rather specific forms of distraction by external stimuli which I argue that, although intended to be irrelevant, were in fact task-relevant. In daily life, attention may be distracted by a wide range of stimuli, which may often be entirely unrelated to any task being performed, and may include not only external stimuli but also internally generated stimuli such as task-unrelated thoughts. This review outlines recent research examining these more general, entirely task-irrelevant, forms of distraction within the framework of Load Theory. I discuss the relation between different forms of distraction, and the universality of load effects across different distractor types and individuals

Investigating the modulation of cognition and event-related potentials relating to visual attention, working memory, and executive control in habitual videogame players

The overall objective of this thesis was to produce a document that investigated whether habitual videogame playing modulated cognitive processes related to visual processing and where in the processing stream these modulations occur. In this thesis, the term ‘cognitive modulation’ refers to any neurological differences (as identified through ERP) between videogame players and non-videogame players that theoretically may have been a result of videogame playing. Using this method, I am able to ascertain whether differences between the two groups are observed in early sensory ERPs, in which case VGPs might possess an advantage in bottom-up visual processing, later selective attention which might indicate alterations in top-down attentional processing, motor-response waveforms that may indicate difference in stimulus response mappings, and finally any differences in working memory capacity that might be the underlying cause of supposed attentional differences. An example of cognitive modulation was observed by Wu et al., (2012) and discussed in more detail in the introduction of this thesis. Indeed these modulations should also be accompanied by a behavioural difference between the two groups. As ERP was the primary source of neurophysiological recordings in this thesis, modulations could occur in the amplitude, mean activity, or peak latency of ERP waveforms.The paradigms employed in this thesis were chosen and designed so that in combination they provide a measure of potential cognitive modulation across the entire processing stream. That is, from early sensory ERPs, through selective attentional ERPs, including executive control ERPs and concluding at ERPs related to motor response priming. As these studies primarily focused on attentional processes, an ERP chapter towards the end of this thesis was included to identify whether any modulations in attentional ERPs were an indirect result of modulated working memory.Chapters 2 and 3 in this thesis focus on attentional control, resources, and the inhibitory processes of attention. Specifically, these chapters related to the attentional control each group employed when being presented with distracting items. Indeed, I observed modulated cognitive processes in chapter 3 related inhibitory processing in both attention and executive control related processes. In addition to this, the flanker task in Chapter 3 also allowed me to measure and modulation in motor priming between videogame players and non-videogame players.Chapters 4 and 5 looked more closely at ERPs related to selective attention such as the N2pc and P3, alongside early sensory ERPs (N1, P1, etc.). In response to observing differences in how each group processed distractors (related to the N2pc in Chapter 4), Chapter 5 employed a very specific test in order to split the N2pc into its component parts to further investigate whether any cognitive modulation between groups was a result of altered priority on processing targets or inhibiting distractors.Chapter 6 in this thesis sought to identify whether any differences observed in the attentional processing stream was actually the result of modulations in working memory, a cognitive process theoretically closely related to selective attention. Chapter 6 measured the contralateral delay activity, a neurological waveform that correlates with items held in visual working memory.Chapter 7 provided further exploratory psychophysical testing to identify whether any potential behavioural between-group differences extend beyond the usual visual field our groups would play videogames in. This involved testing the crowding phenomenon whereby participants are unable to identify a stimulus when closely flanked by distractors.This these concludes with Chapter 8, an overall discussion of each chapters results and how these theoretically synthesise with one another in relation to the two objectives of this thesis; does videogame playing modulate cognitive, and where in the attentional processing stream does this occur

To Play or Not to Play: An Investigation Into The Effect of Video Game Use on Executive Functions

Findings in experimental psychology research suggest that individuals who engage in video game play outperform those who do not play video games on a range of cognitions, in particular visual selective attention. It was predicted that the source of the differences observed in video game players (VGP) compared to non-video game players (NVGP) is the result of additional executive function resources. Findings suggest that only when the task is sufficiently demanding are the additional attentional and executive function resources in VGP observable compared to NVGP. Across three experimental paradigms, the executive functions of VGP were compared to those of NVGP. In Experiments One and Two, a hybrid response inhibition task was used to assess the response inhibition performance in the subcomponents of action cancellation, action withholding, and interference resolution in VGP compared to NVGP. In Experiment Two, measures of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and glutamine were recorded using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In Experiment One, VGP significantly outperformed NVGP in measures of action cancellation and interference resolution, but the HRIT failed to measure action withholding. In Experiment Two, the results of Experiment One were not replicated, and there was no significant difference between VGP and NVGP in the subcomponents of response inhibition. A combined analysis of participants in Experiments One and Two replicated the effects observed in Experiment One, VGP outperformed NVGP on measures of interference resolution and action withholding. In Experiment Three, the ability to sustain attention was assessed using a continuous performance task with manipulations of cognitive load. The aim was to elucidate the inconsistent results observed in Experiments One and Two by manipulating cognitive load to allow observation of the increased executive function resources in VGP. The results of Experiment Three showed no significant difference between VGP and NVGP in metrics of sustained attention performance. Moreover, there was no difference between groups in their ability to sustain attention regardless of cognitive load. This thesis emphasises the potential for video game use to train and improve executive function capabilities, but that findings and directions for future research are constrained by methodological and theoretical limitations

Twenty years of load theory—Where are we now, and where should we go next?

Selective attention allows us to ignore what is task-irrelevant and focus on what is task-relevant. The cognitive and neural mechanisms that underlie this process are key topics of investigation in cognitive psychology. One of the more prominent theories of attention is perceptual load theory, which suggests that the efficiency of selective attention is dependent on both perceptual and cognitive load. It is now more than 20 years since the proposal of load theory, and it is a good time to evaluate the evidence in support of this influential model. The present article supplements and extends previous reviews (Lavie, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 75–82. doi:10.​1016/​j.​tics.​2004.​12.​004, 2005, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 143–148. doi:10.​1177/​0963721410370295​, 2010) by examining more recent research in what appears to be a rapidly expanding area. The article comprises five parts, examining (1) evidence for the effects of perceptual load on attention, (2) cognitive load, (3) individual differences under load, (4) alternative theories and criticisms, and (5) the future of load theory. We argue that the key next step for load theory will be the application of the model to real-world tasks. The potential benefits of applied attention research are numerous, and there is tentative evidence that applied research would provide strong support for the theory itself, as well as real-world benefits related to activities in which attention is crucial, such as driving and education

Virtual Reality Games for Motor Rehabilitation

This paper presents a fuzzy logic based method to track user satisfaction without the need for devices to monitor users physiological conditions. User satisfaction is the key to any product’s acceptance; computer applications and video games provide a unique opportunity to provide a tailored environment for each user to better suit their needs. We have implemented a non-adaptive fuzzy logic model of emotion, based on the emotional component of the Fuzzy Logic Adaptive Model of Emotion (FLAME) proposed by El-Nasr, to estimate player emotion in UnrealTournament 2004. In this paper we describe the implementation of this system and present the results of one of several play tests. Our research contradicts the current literature that suggests physiological measurements are needed. We show that it is possible to use a software only method to estimate user emotion

Assessing the transfer of video game play versus attention training using 3D-Multiple Object Tracking

Durant la dernière décennie, la recherche sur les jeux vidéo et leur implication sur les habiletés perceptivo-cognitives a gagné en intérêt. Plusieurs études ont démontré que les jeux vidéo (particulièrement les jeux d’action) possèdent la capacité d’influencer et d’améliorer différentes aptitudes perceptives et cognitives telles que l’attention visuo-spatiale, la vitesse de traitement de l’information, la mémoire visuelle à court terme ainsi que la poursuite d’objets en mouvement. Cependant, plusieurs autres études n’ont pas réussi à reproduire les mêmes résultats. D’un autre côté, un nouveau type d’entraînement perceptivo-cognitif, nommé 3-Dimensional Multiple-Object Tracking (3D-MOT), et qui consiste à traiter des scènes visuelles dynamiques dénuées de contexte, a démontré son implication sur différents types d’attention, la mémoire de travail ainsi que la vitesse de traitement de l’information. L’étude actuelle a examiné quatre groupes de joueurs inexpérimentés qui s’entrainaient durant 10 séances à l’aide d’un exercice perceptivo-cognitif (3D-MOT), ou d’un jeu de haut niveau visuel (jeu vidéo d’action : Call of Duty), de bas niveau visuel (Tetris) ou d’un jeu non-visuel (Sudoku). Des mesures d’électroencéphalographie quantitative et des tests neuropsychologiques effectués avant et après l’entraînement ont démontré que le 3D-MOT, par comparaison aux autres jeux testés, améliorait de façon plus efficace les fonctions reliées à l’attention, la mémoire de travail ainsi que la vitesse de traitement de l’information. Pour la première fois, cette étude démontre que l’entraînement non-contextuel de 3D-MOT améliore les habiletés perceptivo-cognitives plus efficacement que l’entraînement à des jeux de divertissement tels que les jeux vidéo.In the past decade, research on video games and their implications on cognitive abilities have gained significant interest. Various studies suggest that video games (in particular action video games) have the inherent ability to influence and improve attentional abilities such as visual spatial attention, processing speed, visual short-term memory and multiple-object tracking. However, many other studies have been unable to replicate similar results. On the other hand, a recent cognitive enhancement tool that is visually dynamic and void of context called 3-Dimensional Multiple-Object tracking (3D-MOT), has demonstrated robust effects on cognitive-perceptual abilities such as divided, selective, and sustained attention as well as working memory and information processing speed. The current study examines four groups of non-video game players that train for 10 sessions on the cognitive enhancing technique (3D-MOT) or on one of three different visually stimulating games: highly visually stimulating game (Call of Duty), lowly visually stimulating game (Tetris), or non-visually stimulating puzzle (Sudoku). A battery of cognitive tests and quantitative electroencephalography preformed before and after training, demonstrated that training on 3D-MOT improved cognitive functions related to attention, working memory, and visual information processing compared to video games. For the first time, this study demonstrated that non-contextual training with 3D-MOT improves perceptual-cognitive abilities more efficiently than video game playing

"No level up!": no effects of video game specialization and expertise on cognitive performance

Previous research into the effects of action video gaming on cognition has suggested that long term exposure to this type of game might lead to an enhancement of cognitive skills that transfer to non-gaming cognitive tasks. However, these results have been controversial. The aim of the current study was to test the presence of positive cognitive transfer from action video games to two cognitive tasks. More specifically, this study investigated the effects that participants’ expertise and genre specialisation have on cognitive improvements in one task unrelated to video gaming (a flanker task) and one related task (change detection task with both control and genre-specific images). This study was unique in three ways. Firstly, it analysed a continuum of expertise levels, which has yet to be investigated in research into the cognitive benefits of video gaming. Secondly, it explored genre-specific skill developments on these tasks by comparing Action and Strategy video game players. Thirdly, it used a very tight experiment design, including the experimenter being blind to expertise level and genre specialisation of the participant. Ninety-two university students aged between 18 and 30 (M = 21.25) were recruited through opportunistic sampling and were grouped by video game specialization and expertise level. While the results of the flanker task were consistent with previous research (i.e. effect of congruence), there was no effect of expertise, and the action gamers failed to outperform the strategy gamers. Additionally, contrary to expectation, there was no interaction between genre specialisation and image type in the change detection task, again demonstrating no expertise effect. The lack of effects for game specialization and expertise goes against previous research on the positive effects of action video gaming on other cognitive tasks

The Effect of Culture on Load and Distractor Processing

The present study examined perceptual load capacity as a potential mechanism that may contribute to visual attention differences between East Asians and North Americans. Participants identified targets in a low or high load display while ignoring distractors that are compatible or incompatible with the target. Previous research suggests North Americans do not experience reaction time difference between compatible and incompatible trials under high load because high load uses up perceptual load capacity before distractors can be processed. If East Asians possess a higher perceptual load capacity than North Americans, they should be slower than North Americans to react in incompatible trials compared to compatible trials under high load. Results revealed that both cultural groups performed similarly, suggesting no cultural difference in perceptual load capacity. Results also revealed that East Asians were significantly slower under high load, but more accurate across all loads, than North Americans. Implications and limitations are discussed