Effective EEG channels for emotion identification over the brain regions using differential evolution algorithm

The motivation of this study was to detect the most effective electroencephalogram (EEG) channels for various emotional states of the brain regions (i.e. frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital). The EEGs of ten volunteer participants without health conditions were captured while the participants were shown seven, short, emotional video clips with audio (i.e. anger, anxiety, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise and neutral). The Savitzky-Golay (SG) filter was adopted for smoothing and denoising the EEG dataset. The spectral features were performed by employing the relative spectral powers of delta (δRP), theta (θRP), alpha (αRP), beta (βRP), and gamma (γRP). The differential evolution-based channel selection algorithm (DEFS_Ch) was computed to find the most suitable EEG channels that have the greatest efficacy for identifying the various emotional states of the brain regions. The results revealed that all seven emotions previously mentioned were represented by at least two frontal and two temporal channels. Moreover, some emotional states could be identified by channels from the parietal region such as disgust, happiness and sadness. Furthermore, the right and left occipital channels may help in identifying happiness, sadness, surprise and neutral emotional states. The DEFS_Ch algorithm raised the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) classification accuracy from 80% to 86.85%, indicating that DEFS_Ch may offer a useful way for reliable enhancement of the detection of different emotional states of the brain regions

Network perspectives on epilepsy using EEG/MEG source connectivity

The evolution of EEG/MEG source connectivity is both, a promising, and controversial advance in the characterization of epileptic brain activity. In this narrative review we elucidate the potential of this technology to provide an intuitive view of the epileptic network at its origin, the different brain regions involved in the epilepsy, without the limitation of electrodes at the scalp level. Several studies have confirmed the added value of using source connectivity to localize the seizure onset zone and irritative zone or to quantify the propagation of epileptic activity over time. It has been shown in pilot studies that source connectivity has the potential to obtain prognostic correlates, to assist in the diagnosis of the epilepsy type even in the absence of visually noticeable epileptic activity in the EEG/MEG, and to predict treatment outcome. Nevertheless, prospective validation studies in large and heterogeneous patient cohorts are still lacking and are needed to bring these techniques into clinical use. Moreover, the methodological approach is challenging, with several poorly examined parameters that most likely impact the resulting network patterns. These fundamental challenges affect all potential applications of EEG/MEG source connectivity analysis, be it in a resting, spiking, or ictal state, and also its application to cognitive activation of the eloquent area in presurgical evaluation. However, such method can allow unique insights into physiological and pathological brain functions and have great potential in (clinical) neuroscience

Recent Applications in Graph Theory

Graph theory, being a rigorously investigated field of combinatorial mathematics, is adopted by a wide variety of disciplines addressing a plethora of real-world applications. Advances in graph algorithms and software implementations have made graph theory accessible to a larger community of interest. Ever-increasing interest in machine learning and model deployments for network data demands a coherent selection of topics rewarding a fresh, up-to-date summary of the theory and fruitful applications to probe further. This volume is a small yet unique contribution to graph theory applications and modeling with graphs. The subjects discussed include information hiding using graphs, dynamic graph-based systems to model and control cyber-physical systems, graph reconstruction, average distance neighborhood graphs, and pure and mixed-integer linear programming formulations to cluster networks

Spectro-spatial Profile for Gender Identification using Emotional-based EEG Signals

 Identifying gender has become essential specially to support automatic human-computer interface applications and to customize interactions based on affective responses. The electroencephalogram (EEG) has been adopted for recording the neuronal information as waveforms from the scalp. The objective of this study was twofold. First, to identify genders from four different emotional states using spectral relative power biomarkers. Second, to develop Spectro-spatial profiles that afford additional information for gender identification using emotional-based EEGs. The dataset has been collected from ten healthful volunteer students from the University of Vienna while watching short emotional audio-visual clips of angry, happiness, sadness, and neutral emotions. Wavelet (WT) has been used as a denoising technique, the spectral relative power features of delta (), theta (), alpha (), beta () and gamma () were extracted from each recorded EEG channel. In the subsequent steps, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson’s correlation analysis were performed to characterize the emotional-based EEG biomarkers towards developing the Spectro-spatial profile to identify gender differences. The results show that the spectral set of features may provide and convey reliable biomarkers for identifying Spectro-spatial profiles from four different emotional states. EEG biomarkers and profiles enable more comprehensive insights into various human behavior effects and as an intervention on the brain. The results revealed that almost high relative powers from all emotional states appear in females compared to males. Particularly,  was the most prominent for anger,  and  were widely observed in happiness,  was the most appears in sadness,  and  were the powers that appears widely in neutral. Moreover, in females, neut was correlated with and _ang, _neut was mostly correlated with _ang. Besides, _neut was correlated with _ang, _neut was correlated with _ang, _neut was mostly correlated with _sad. Moreover, in males, _neut showed a very strong correlation with _sadness whereas _neut was correlated with _hap and _neut was correlated with _hap. Therefore, the proposed system using the WT denoising method, spectral relative power markers, and the spectro-spatial profile plays a crucial role in characterizing the emotional-based EEGs towards gender identification. The classification results were 89.46% for SVM and 90% for the KNN. Therefore, the proposed system using the WT denoising method, spectral relative powers features, SVM, and KNN classifiers were crucial in gender identification and characterizing the emotional EEG signals

Brain-Computer Interface

Brain-computer interfacing (BCI) with the use of advanced artificial intelligence identification is a rapidly growing new technology that allows a silently commanding brain to manipulate devices ranging from smartphones to advanced articulated robotic arms when physical control is not possible. BCI can be viewed as a collaboration between the brain and a device via the direct passage of electrical signals from neurons to an external system. The book provides a comprehensive summary of conventional and novel methods for processing brain signals. The chapters cover a range of topics including noninvasive and invasive signal acquisition, signal processing methods, deep learning approaches, and implementation of BCI in experimental problems

Working Memory Classification Enhancement of EEG Activity in Dementia: A Comparative Study

The purpose of the current investigation is to distinguish between working memory ( ) in five patients with vascular dementia ( ), fifteen post-stroke patients with mild cognitive impairment ( ), and fifteen healthy control individuals ( ) based on background electroencephalography (EEG) activity. The elimination of EEG artifacts using wavelet (WT) pre-processing denoising is demonstrated in this study. In the current study, spectral entropy ( ), permutation entropy ( ), and approximation entropy ( ) were all explored. To improve the  classification using the k-nearest neighbors ( NN) classifier scheme, a comparative study of using fuzzy neighbourhood preserving analysis with -decomposition ( ) as a dimensionality reduction technique and the improved binary gravitation search ( ) optimization algorithm as a channel selection method has been conducted. The NN classification accuracy was increased from 86.67% to 88.09% and 90.52% using the  dimensionality reduction technique and the  channel selection algorithm, respectively. According to the findings,  reliably enhances  discrimination of , , and  participants. Therefore, WT, entropy features, IBGSA and NN classifiers provide a valid dementia index for looking at EEG background activity in patients with  and .

EmoEEG - recognising people's emotions using electroencephalography

Tese de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Biomédica e Biofísica (Sinais e Imagens Médicas), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2020As emoções desempenham um papel fulcral na vida humana, estando envolvidas numa extensa variedade de processos cognitivos, tais como tomada de decisão, perceção, interações sociais e inteligência. As interfaces cérebro-máquina (ICM) são sistemas que convertem os padrões de atividade cerebral de um utilizador em mensagens ou comandos para uma determinada aplicação. Os usos mais comuns desta tecnologia permitem que pessoas com deficiência motora controlem braços mecânicos, cadeiras de rodas ou escrevam. Contudo, também é possível utilizar tecnologias ICM para gerar output sem qualquer controle voluntário. A identificação de estados emocionais é um exemplo desse tipo de feedback. Por sua vez, esta tecnologia pode ter aplicações clínicas tais como a identificação e monitorização de patologias psicológicas, ou aplicações multimédia que facilitem o acesso a músicas ou filmes de acordo com o seu conteúdo afetivo. O interesse crescente em estabelecer interações emocionais entre máquinas e pessoas, levou à necessidade de encontrar métodos fidedignos de reconhecimento emocional automático. Os autorrelatos podem não ser confiáveis devido à natureza subjetiva das próprias emoções, mas também porque os participantes podem responder de acordo com o que acreditam que os outros responderiam. A fala emocional é uma maneira eficaz de deduzir o estado emocional de uma pessoa, pois muitas características da fala são independentes da semântica ou da cultura. No entanto, a precisão ainda é insuficiente quando comparada com outros métodos, como a análise de expressões faciais ou sinais fisiológicos. Embora o primeiro já tenha sido usado para identificar emoções com sucesso, ele apresenta desvantagens, tais como o fato de muitas expressões faciais serem "forçadas" e o fato de que as leituras só são possíveis quando o rosto do sujeito está dentro de um ângulo muito específico em relação à câmara. Por estes motivos, a recolha de sinais fisiológicos tem sido o método preferencial para o reconhecimento de emoções. O uso do EEG (eletroencefalograma) permite-nos monitorizar as emoções sentidas sob a forma de impulsos elétricos provenientes do cérebro, permitindo assim obter uma ICM para o reconhecimento afetivo. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a combinação de diferentes elementos para identificar estados afetivos, estimando valores de valência e ativação usando sinais de EEG. A análise realizada consistiu na criação de vários modelos de regressão para avaliar como diferentes elementos afetam a precisão na estimativa de valência e ativação. Os referidos elementos foram os métodos de aprendizagem automática, o género do indivíduo, o conceito de assimetria cerebral, os canais de elétrodos utilizados, os algoritmos de extração de características e as bandas de frequências analisadas. Com esta análise foi possível criarmos o melhor modelo possível, com a combinação de elementos que maximiza a sua precisão. Para alcançar os nossos objetivos, recorremos a duas bases de dados (AMIGOS e DEAP) contendo sinais de EEG obtidos durante experiências de desencadeamento emocional, juntamente com a autoavaliação realizada pelos respetivos participantes. Nestas experiências, os participantes visionaram excertos de vídeos de conteúdo afetivo, de modo a despoletar emoções sobre eles, e depois classificaram-nas atribuindo o nível de valência e ativação experienciado. Os sinais EEG obtidos foram divididos em epochs de 4s e de seguida procedeu-se à extração de características através de diferentes algoritmos: o primeiro, segundo e terceiro parâmetros de Hjorth; entropia espectral; energia e entropia de wavelets; energia e entropia de FMI (funções de modos empíricos) obtidas através da transformada de Hilbert-Huang. Estes métodos de processamento de sinal foram escolhidos por já terem gerado resultados bons noutros trabalhos relacionados. Todos estes métodos foram aplicados aos sinais EEG dentro das bandas de frequência alfa, beta e gama, que também produziram bons resultados de acordo com trabalhos já efetuados. Após a extração de características dos sinais EEG, procedeu-se à criação de diversos modelos de estimação da valência e ativação usando as autoavaliações dos participantes como “verdade fundamental”. O primeiro conjunto de modelos criados serviu para aferir quais os melhores métodos de aprendizagem automática a utilizar para os testes vindouros. Após escolher os dois melhores, tentámos verificar as diferenças no processamento emocional entre os sexos, realizando a estimativa em homens e mulheres separadamente. O conjunto de modelos criados a seguir visou testar o conceito da assimetria cerebral, que afirma que a valência emocional está relacionada com diferenças na atividade fisiológica entre os dois hemisférios cerebrais. Para este teste específico, foram consideradas a assimetria diferencial e racional segundo pares de elétrodos homólogos. Depois disso, foram criados modelos de estimação de valência e ativação considerando cada um dos elétrodos individualmente. Ou seja, os modelos seriam gerados com todos os métodos de extração de características, mas com os dados obtidos de um elétrodo apenas. Depois foram criados modelos que visassem comparar cada um dos algoritmos de extração de características utilizados. Os modelos gerados nesta fase incluíram os dados obtidos de todos os elétrodos, já que anteriormente se verificou que não haviam elétrodos significativamente melhores que outros. Por fim, procedeu-se à criação dos modelos com a melhor combinação de elementos possível, otimizaram-se os parâmetros dos mesmos, e procurámos também aferir a sua validação. Realizámos também um processo de classificação emocional associando cada par estimado de valores de valência e ativação ao quadrante correspondente no modelo circumplexo de afeto. Este último passo foi necessário para conseguirmos comparar o nosso trabalho com as soluções existentes, pois a grande maioria delas apenas identificam o quadrante emocional, não estimando valores para a valência e ativação. Em suma, os melhores métodos de aprendizagem automática foram RF (random forest) e KNN (k-nearest neighbours), embora a combinação dos melhores métodos de extração de características fosse diferente para os dois. KNN apresentava melhor precisão considerando todos os métodos de extração menos a entropia espectral, enquanto que RF foi mais preciso considerando apenas o primeiro parâmetro de Hjorth e a energia de wavelets. Os valores dos coeficientes de Pearson obtidos para os melhores modelos otimizados ficaram compreendidos entre 0,8 e 0,9 (sendo 1 o valor máximo). Não foram registados melhoramentos nos resultados considerando cada género individualmente, pelo que os modelos finais foram criados usando os dados de todos os participantes. É possível que a diminuição da precisão dos modelos criados para cada género seja resultado da menor quantidade de dados envolvidos no processo de treino. O conceito de assimetria cerebral só foi útil nos modelos criados usando a base de dados DEAP, especialmente para a estimação de valência usando as características extraídas segundo a banda alfa. Em geral, as nossas abordagens mostraram-se a par ou mesmo superiores a outros trabalhos, obtendo-se valores de acurácia de 86.5% para o melhor modelo de classificação gerado com a base de dados AMIGOS e 86.6% usando a base de dados DEAP.Emotion recognition is a field within affective computing that is gaining increasing relevance and strives to predict an emotional state using physiological signals. Understanding how these biological factors are expressed according to one’s emotions can enhance the humancomputer interaction (HCI). This knowledge, can then be used for clinical applications such as the identification and monitoring of psychiatric disorders. It can also be used to provide better access to multimedia content, by assigning affective tags to videos or music. The goal of this work was to create several models for estimating values of valence and arousal, using features extracted from EEG signals. The different models created were meant to compare how various elements affected the accuracy of the model created. These elements were the machine learning techniques, the gender of the individual, the brain asymmetry concept, the electrode channels, the feature extraction methods and the frequency of the brain waves analysed. The final models contained the best combination of these elements and achieved PCC values over 0.80. As a way to compare our work with previous approaches, we also implemented a classification procedure to find the correspondent quadrant in the valence and arousal space according to the circumplex model of affect. The best accuracies achieved were over 86%, which was on par or even superior to some of the works already done

Domain knowledge-assisted multi-objective evolutionary algorithm for channel selection in brain-computer interface systems

BackgroundFor non-invasive brain-computer interface systems (BCIs) with multiple electroencephalogram (EEG) channels, the key factor limiting their convenient application in the real world is how to perform reasonable channel selection while ensuring task accuracy, which can be modeled as a multi-objective optimization problem. Therefore, this paper proposed a two-objective problem model for the channel selection problem and introduced a domain knowledge-assisted multi-objective optimization algorithm (DK-MOEA) to solve the aforementioned problem.MethodsThe multi-objective optimization problem model was designed based on the channel connectivity matrix and comprises two objectives: one is the task accuracy and the other one can sensitively indicate the removal status of channels in BCIs. The proposed DK-MOEA adopted a two-space framework, consisting of the population space and the knowledge space. Furthermore, a knowledge-assisted update operator was introduced to enhance the search efficiency of the population space by leveraging the domain knowledge stored in the knowledge space.ResultsThe proposed two-objective problem model and DK-MOEA were tested on a fatigue detection task and four state-of-the-art multi-objective evolutionary algorithms were used for comparison. The experimental results indicated that the proposed algorithm achieved the best results among all the comparative algorithms for most cases by the Wilcoxon rank sum test at a significance level of 0.05. DK-MOEA was also compared with a version without the utilization of domain knowledge and the experimental results validated the effectiveness of the knowledge-assisted mutation operator. Moreover, the comparison between DK-MOEA and a traditional classification algorithm using all channels demonstrated that DK-MOEA can strike the balance between task accuracy and the number of selected channels.ConclusionThe formulated two-objective optimization model enabled the selection of a minimal number of channels without compromising classification accuracy. The utilization of domain knowledge improved the performance of DK-MOEA. By adopting the proposed two-objective problem model and DK-MOEA, a balance can be achieved between the number of the selected channels and the accuracy of the fatigue detection task. The methods proposed in this paper can reduce the complexity of subsequent data processing and enhance the convenience of practical applications