Towards a new ITU-T recommendation for subjective methods evaluating gaming QoE

This paper reports on activities in Study Group 12 of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T SG12) to define a new Recommendation on subjective evaluation methods for gaming Quality of Experience (QoE). It first resumes the structure and content of the current draft which has been proposed to ITU-T SG12 in September 2014 and then critically discusses potential gaming content and evaluation methods for inclusion into the upcoming Recommendation. The aim is to start a discussion amongst experts on potential evaluation methods and their limitations, before finalizing a Recommendation. Such a recommendation might in the end be applied by non -expert users, hence wrong decisions in the evaluation design could negatively affect gaming QoE throughout the evaluation

Self-discrepancy and MMORPGs: testing the moderating effects of avatar identification and pathological gaming in world of warcraft

Previous research has shown that MMORPG players create avatars that are considered to possess more ideal personality traits than their actual selves. More specifically, Bessière, Seay and Kiesler (2007) have demonstrated that for the personality traits conscientiousness, extraversion and neuroticism, the mean discrepancies between gamers' ideal self and avatar are significantly smaller than those between the gamers' ideal and actual self. These findings are automatically attributed to the assumption that gamers use their avatars to alleviate self-discrepancy. This line of reasoning is supported by a recent theoretical account by Klimmt, Hefner and Vorder (2009). They argue that video games enable an experiential merger of the player with their game avatar, which affords a temporary reduction of the psychological distress that is associated with a discrepancy between the self and the ideal self. Unfortunately, Bessière et al.'s (2007) study fails to provide definitive evidence for this assumption. Whereas the smaller distance between avatar and ideal self indicates that players see their avatar as more ideal, this does not mean that they identify with their avatar and use it to temporarily relieve self-discrepancy. In fact, there are several alternative explanations. First of all, fantasy game characters by default possess characteristics that can be deemed more ideal. Moreover, gamers may assemble an avatar with ideal characteristics to facilitate their game play rather than because they relate these characteristics to themselves. Consequently, a meaningful association, i.e. identification, between WoW players and their avatars is a prerequisite for supporting the self-discrepancy thesis. Hence our first hypothesis posits that (H1) in comparison to gamers with a low level of avatar identification, gamers with a high level of avatar identification perceive the distance between their ideal self and avatar as smaller than the distance between their ideal self and actual self. Secondly, we explore the possibility that pathological gaming can be related to a desire to reduce self-discrepancy by evaluating whether gamers with a tendency towards pathological gaming have a stronger desire to reduce self-discrepancy. Research has indicated that the activity of advancing an avatar, making it as ideal as possible, requires a significant amount of commitment and thus can be expected to be a factor in explaining pathological gaming (Ducheneaut, Yee, Nickell, & Moore, 2006; Hsu, Wen, & Wu, 2009). Withal, previous studies have confirmed the relation between pathological gaming and lower levels of psychological well-being (Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009; Lo, Wang, & Fang, 2005). Given these findings, we propose a second hypothesis (H2), stating that in comparison to gamers with a weak tendency towards pathological gaming, gamers with a strong tendency towards it perceive the distance between their ideal self and avatar as smaller than the distance between their ideal and actual self. Yet, the question arises whether the experience of a temporary reduction of self-discrepancy through gaming is a factor in explaining the process of pathological gaming. Perhaps gamers use their avatars to make up for their perceived shortcomings and to experience a more idealized self. On the other hand, pathological gamers might be caught up in the game, advancing their character, without the player identifying with it and thus without the mechanism of self-discrepancy reduction playing a role. However, previous research by Smahel, Blinka and Ledabyl (2008) found a small correlation between ad hoc measures of identification and pathological gaming. Therefore, our third and final hypothesis states that (H3) in comparison to other gamers, gamers with high scores for both pathological gaming and identification perceive the distance between their ideal self and avatar as smaller than the distance between their ideal self and actual self. The present research draws on a sample of 304 WoW players, gathered through an online survey (Mage = 24.54, SD = 13.91, 84% male). The survey contained BFI personality measures of: (a) gamers' actual self, (b) gamers' ideal self and (c) main avatar (John & Srivastava, 2008). Furthermore, measures of avatar identification (Van Looy, Courtois, & De Vocht, 2010) and pathological gaming (Lemmens, et al., 2009) were included. These two measures' scores were split in half, using the median as a cut-off point to divide into high and low levels. Mixed model analysis of variances was used to test for the proposed hypotheses. First of all, the results indicate that players with a high avatar identification have a character that is closer to their ideal self for conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness and extraversion than those who score low for avatar identification. Except for openness, the ideal self - avatar discrepancies are consistently smaller than the ideal self - actual self discrepancies. As such, evidence is found for the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis, predicting a moderating effect of pathological gaming, is confirmed for neuroticism, openness and extraversion. Except for openness, it shows that for gamers with high pathological gaming scores demonstrate a larger distance between the self and actual self and a smaller distance between the avatar and the ideal self. Finally, the third hypothesis is confirmed for neuroticism and openness. It shows that gamers who combine a high score for pathological gaming with a high degree identification have much smaller discrepancies between their ideal self and avatar than between their ideal self and actual self. As such, these findings provide direct evidence for the self-discrepancy hypothesis proposed by Klimmt, Heffner and Vorderer. By implementing a direct measure of identification into Bessière, Kiesler and Seay's design, we were able to rule out the possibility that gamers do not meaningfully associate themselves with their avatar and just see it as more ideal because the game depicts a more ideal world or because creating a more ideal avatar is necessary for being successful in the game. As such, it is effectively shown that WoW players maintain a meaningful relationship with their avatar, which in turn provides further evidence for the self-discrepancy hypothesis in relation to the playing of MMORPGs. Finally, based on the idea that pathological gaming could be accompanied by a stronger desire to reduce self-discrepancy and thus alleviate psychological tension, we compared pathological gaming scores and discrepancies. Our findings indicate that WoW players with a tendency towards pathological gaming create and identify with avatars that are much more emotionally stable than their actual selves. In other words, they create an avatar that is more ideal on the dimension of neuroticism and then identify with it more strongly. References: Bessière, K., Seay, F., & Kiesler, S. (2007). The Ideal Elf: Identity Exploration in World of Warcraft. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(4), 530-535. Ducheneaut, N., Yee, N., Nickell, E., & Moore, R. J. (2006). Building an MMO with Mass Appeal: A look at gameplay in World of Warcraft. Games and Culture, 1(4), 281-317. Hsu, S. H., Wen, M. H., & Wu, M. C. (2009). Exploring user experiences as predictors of MMORPG addiction. Computers & Education, 53(3), 990-999. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (2008). The Big Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, and Theoretical Perspectives. In J. O.P., R. W. Robins & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of Personality (pp. 102-139). New York: Guilford Press. Klimmt, C., Hefner, D., & Vorderer, P. (2009). The Video Game Experience as "True" Identification: A Theory of Enjoyable Alternations of Players' Self-Perception. Communication Theory, 19(4). Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and Validation of a Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents. Media Psychology, 12(1), 77-95. Lo, S. K., Wang, C. C., & Fang, W. (2005). Physical Interpersonal Relationships and Social Anxiety among Online Game Players. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8(1), 15-20. Smahel, D., Blinka, L., & Ledabyl, O. (2008). Playing MMORPGs: Connections between Addiction and Identifying with a Character. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 715-718. Van Looy, J., Courtois, C., & De Vocht, M. (2010). Player Identification in Online Games: Validation of a Scale for Measuring Identification in MMORPGs. Paper presented at the Fun & Games, Leuven, Belgium

Putting the "Fun Factor" Into Gaming: The Influence of Social Contexts on Experiences of Playing Videogames

The increasingly social nature of gaming suggests the importance of understanding its associated experiences and potential outcomes. This study examined the influence of social processes in gameplay and different gaming contexts on the experience of individual and group flow when engaged in the activity. It also examined the affective experiences associated with different types of social gaming. The research consisted of a series of focus groups with regular gamers. The results of the thematic analysis revealed the importance of social belonging, opportunities for social networking and the promotion of social integration for game enjoyment. However, social experiences could also facilitate feelings of frustration in gameplay as a result of poor social dynamics and competitiveness. The analysis furthermore suggested that group flow occurs in social gaming contexts, particularly in cooperative gameplay. A number of antecedents of this shared experience were identified (e.g., collective competence, collaboration, task-relevant skills). Taken together, the findings suggest social gaming contexts enhance the emotional experiences of gaming. The study demonstrates the importance of examining social gaming processes and experiences to further understand their potential influence on associated affective outcomes. Areas of further empirical research are discussed in reference to the study’s findings

Online gaming addiction in children and adolescents: a review of empirical research

Background and aims: Research suggests that excessive online gaming may lead to symptoms commonly experienced by substance addicts. Since games are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, these individuals may be more at risk than other groups of developing gaming addiction. Methods: Given these potential concerns, a literature review was undertaken in order (i) to present the classification basis of online gaming addiction using official mental disorder frameworks, (ii) to identify empirical studies that assess online gaming addiction in children and adolescents, and (iii) to present and evaluate the findings against the background of related and established mental disorder criteria. Results: Empirical evidence comprising 30 studies indicates that for some adolescents, gaming ad - diction exists and that as the addiction develops, online gaming addicts spend increasing amounts of time preparing for, organizing, and actually gaming. Conclusions: Evidence suggests that problematic online gaming can be conceptualized as a behavioral addiction rather than a disorder of impulse control

The motivational pull of video game feedback, rules, and social interaction: Another self-determination theory approach

This paper argues that most video game enjoyment can be understood in terms of the type of feedback used, the rules set out by the game and the social elements of the game - concepts that have been identified as critical to video games. Self-determination theory (SDT) is used as a lens for understanding the mechanism by which these traits might lead to enjoyment. Specifically, the argument is that feedback, rules, and social elements of games will fulfill the dimensions of SDT - competence autonomy, and relatedness. Then, the dimensions of SDT will predict enjoyment. Participants were presented with a game that emphasized feedback, rules, or social elements. Games that emphasized flexible rules led to feelings of competence while games that emphasized social elements led to feelings of relatedness. Competence and elatedness then led to feelings of enjoyment. In doing so, this study identifies key elements of video games while illuminating ways to understand video game enjoyment

Affect and believability in game characters:a review of the use of affective computing in games

Virtual agents are important in many digital environments. Designing a character that highly engages users in terms of interaction is an intricate task constrained by many requirements. One aspect that has gained more attention recently is the effective dimension of the agent. Several studies have addressed the possibility of developing an affect-aware system for a better user experience. Particularly in games, including emotional and social features in NPCs adds depth to the characters, enriches interaction possibilities, and combined with the basic level of competence, creates a more appealing game. Design requirements for emotionally intelligent NPCs differ from general autonomous agents with the main goal being a stronger player-agent relationship as opposed to problem solving and goal assessment. Nevertheless, deploying an affective module into NPCs adds to the complexity of the architecture and constraints. In addition, using such composite NPC in games seems beyond current technology, despite some brave attempts. However, a MARPO-type modular architecture would seem a useful starting point for adding emotions

Implicit and explicit measures: a test of a dissociative model of aggression

This study tested a dissociative model of aggression measurement. Aggression is construed as having two components, each of which is associated more strongly with either implicit or explicit measures of aggression. A videogame based frustration manipulation was used to elicit hostile aggressive responses in the form of hard force applied to buttons. Instrumental aggression criteria were also assessed in the form of honesty in reporting game outcomes, willingness to pause games while believing that pausing could damage the study results, and willingness to use unfair strategies that are also described as damaging to study results. Differential prediction of these behaviors by implicit and explicit measures of aggression supported a dissociative model of aggression measurement.M.S.Committee Chair: Dr. Lawrence R. James; Committee Member: Dr. Jack M. Feldman; Committee Member: Dr. James S. Robert