29 research outputs found

    Multimetal smithing : An urban craft in rural settings?

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    Multimetal smithing should be defined as the use of more than one metal and/or different metalworking techniques within thesame crafts-milieu. This complex metalworking has long been linked to centrality, central places and urbanity in Scandinavia.It has been extensively argued that fine casting and smithing, as well as manufacture utilizing precious metals was exclusivelyundertaken within early urban settings or the “central places” pre-dating these. Furthermore, the presence of complex metalcraftsmanship has been used as a driving indicator of the political, social and economic superiority of certain sites, therebyenhancing their identity as “centralities”.Recent research has come to challenge the universality of this link between urbanity, centrality and complex metalworkingas sites in rural settings with evidence of multimetal smithing are being identified. This shows that the relationship between thecraft and centrality (urbanity) must be nuanced and that perhaps multimetal craftsmanship should be reconsidered as an urbanindicator.The thesis project “From Crucible and onto Anvil” started in 2015 and focuses on sites housing remains of multimetalcraftsmanship dating primarily from 500-1000 AD. Within the project a comprehensive survey of sites will be used to evaluate thepresence of multimetal craftsmanship in the landscape. Sites in selected target areas will also be subject to intra-site analysisfocusing on workshop organisation, production output, metalworking techniques and chronological variances.A key aim in the project is to elucidate the conceptual aspects of complex metalworking. The term multimetality is used toanalytically frame all the societal and economic aspects of multimetal craftsmanship. Through this inclusive perspective both thecraftsmanship and the metalworkers behind it are positioned within the overall socioeconomic framework. The metalworkers,their skills and competences as well as the products of their labour are viewed as dynamic actors in the landscape and on thearenas of political economy of the Late Iron Age.The survey has already revealed interesting aspects concerning multimetal smithing and urbanity. Although the multimetalsites do cluster against areas of early urban development there are also other patterns emerging. Multimetal craftsmanship – both as practice and concept – was well represented in both rural peripheral settings and urban crafts-milieus. This means that therole of multimetality as part of an “urban conceptual package” is crucial to investigate. Such an approach will have the dual endsof properly understanding the craft and its societal implications, but also further the knowledge of the phenomenon of urbanityas a whole. Was multimetal smithing part of an “urban package” that spread into the rural landscape? Did the multimetality differbetween urban and rural crafts-milieus? How does early urbanity relate to the chronology of multimetal craftsmanship?This paper aims to counter these questions using examples from the survey of multimetal sites conducted within the thesisproject. A comparison between selected sites will be presented. The purpose of this is to evaluate the role of multimetality withinthe “urban package” and discuss the role of complex metalworking in the establishment of urban arenas of interaction in LateIron Age Scandinavia

    Organizational-economic mechanism of management innovative development of economic entities: collective monograph

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    The authors of the book have come to the conclusion that it is necessary to effectively use modern approaches the management of innovative development the economic entities in order to increase the efficiency of activity, to ensure competitiveness, to intensify innovation activity. Basic research focuses on assessing the innovation processes, the fourth generation of new industrial revolution, diagnosis of sources of innovation financing, assessment of social innovations. The research results have been implemented in the different models of development innovation management, renewable energy, introduction of start-up projects and lifelong learning. The results of the study can be used in decision-making at the level the economic entities in different areas of activity and organizational-legal forms of ownership, ministries and departments that promote of development the economic entities on an innovative basis. The results can also be used by students and young scientists in modern concepts and mechanisms for management of innovative development the economic entities in the context of efficient use the resource potential and improvement of innovation policy

    Migration and Social Protection in Europe and Beyond (Volume 2)

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    This second open access book in a series of three volumes examines the repertoire of policies and programmes led by EU Member States to engage with their nationals residing abroad. Focusing on sending states’ engagement in the area of social protection, this book shows how a series of emigration-related policies that go beyond the realm of social security address the needs of nationals abroad in the area of health care, unemployment, family benefits, pensions and economic hardship. In addition, this volume highlights the variety of sending states’ institutions that are involved in these policies (consulates, diaspora institutions, ministries, agencies
) and their engagement with citizens abroad in other policy areas such as electoral rights, citizenship, language, culture, education, business or religion. As such this book is a valuable read to researchers, policy makers, government employees and NGO’s

    Illuminierte Urkunden. BeitrÀge aus Diplomatik, Kunstgeschichte und Digital Humanities / Illuminated Charters. Essays from Diplomatic, Art History and Digital Humanities

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    Illuminated documents have long been treated as research stepchildren. Not least because of the use of digital aids, they have increasingly come into the public eye in the past decade. The newly awakened research interest focuses on the changed performativity of certificates through the addition of decorative elements. The richly illustrated volume presents essays by researchers from eleven countries who examine illuminated certificates from different perspectives of their disciplines

    Integrating ecosystem–based management and marine spatial planning for sustainable ocean governance in the Bay of Bengal

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    In the contemporary world, oceans are increasingly realized as ‘threatened places’ in need of environmental protection, at risk from pollution, habitat loss, and overfishing. On the other hand, nations around the world are turning their attention to oceans as a new source of economic development and growth, seeing them as ‘industrialized spaces’. The concept of integrating Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a new approach for sustainable Ocean Governance (SOG). As an effective strategic tool for planning and managing conflicting ocean uses and their interactions with marine ecosystems, the EBM-MSP approach creates an opportunity for long-term development in relation to ocean and its resources. This thesis scrutinizes the contemporary concepts, definitions, and approaches pertinent to the establishment of a comprehensive Ecosystem-based Management and Marine Spatial Planning (EBM-MSP) framework for Sustainable Ocean Governance that reflects global and regional standards. The study also analyses various scientific data – especially the pollutants’ concentration at spatial and temporal scales – with special reference to EBM-MSP. The research analyses international laws, declarations, conventions, and agreements that are relevant to the proposition of a new dynamic approach to SOG based on EBM-MSP. This new approach could be useful to support necessary reforms, filling gaps in legal regimes and achieving integrated and effective ocean governance mechanisms to prevent, reduce, and control pollution in the marine environment, as well as promoting sustainable exploration of marine resources. Specifically, the research critically analyses the existing legal frameworks in relation to SOG in the Bay of Bengal (BOB). Based on an analysis of sectoral legislation and institutional arrangements in the BOB, the thesis recommends the modification and adoption of legislation, as well as integration among the relevant departments of Bangladesh Government, to match transboundary SOG, particularly along with EBM-MSP development processes. The study focuses on national policies and strategies along with sectoral legislation and institutional arrangements to contribute towards EBM-MSP at national level for SOG, by considering socioeconomic balance and jurisdictional overlays. Based on experiences in the Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), the research determines numerous key features to assist with the generation and application of EBM-MSP in the BOB region, specifically in Bangladesh, by integrating EBM-MSP with particular reference to a Comprehensive Ocean Zoning (COZ). The substantial outcome of the study is to suggest a COZ Framework for Bangladesh to protect priority seascapes and sites, species of special concern, and their critical habitats, by designing Marine Protected Area networks throughout the transboundary coast

    Selected Papers from the 2018 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for the Sea

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    This Special Issue is devoted to recent developments in instrumentation and measurement techniques applied to the marine field. ¶The sea is the medium that has allowed people to travel from one continent to another using vessels, even today despite the use of aircraft. It has also been acting as a great reservoir and source of food for all living beings. However, for many generations, it served as a landfill for depositing conventional and nuclear wastes, especially in its deep seabeds, and we are assisting in a race to exploit minerals and resources, different from foods, encompassed in it. Its health is a great challenge for the survival of all humanity since it is one of the most important environmental components targeted by global warming. ¶ As everyone may know, measuring is a step that generates substantial knowledge about a phenomenon or an asset, which is the basis for proposing correct solutions and making proper decisions. However, measurements in the sea environment pose unique difficulties and opportunities, which is made clear from the research results presented in this Special Issue

    Remembering the GULAG: Community, Identity and Cultural Memory in Russia’s Far North, 1987-2018

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    abstract: This dissertation explores how rank-and-file political prisoners navigated life after release and how they translated their experiences in the Gulag and after into memoirs, letters, and art. I argue that these autobiographical narratives formed the basis of an alternate history of the Soviet Union. This alternate history informed the cultural memory of the Gulag in the Komi Republic, which coalesced over the course of the late 1980s and 1990s into an infrastructure of memory. This alternate history was mobilized by the formation of the Soviet Union’s first civic organizations, such as the Memorial Society, that emerged in the late 1980s. However, Gulag returnees not only joined post-Soviet civil society, they also formed a nascent civil society after their release in the 1950s. The social networks and informal associations that Gulag returnees relied upon to reintegrate back into Soviet society after release, also played an essential role in the memory project of coming to terms with the Stalinist past after the collapse of the Soviet Union. As one of the first and most populous epicenters of the Gulag archipelago located in the Far North, from 1929-1958 Komi saw hundreds of thousands of prisoners, in addition to hundreds of thousands more who were exiled to the region from all over the Soviet Union. While some left the region after they were released, many were not able to leave or chose not to when given the choice. Regardless of where they lived when the Soviet Union collapsed, many former prisoners sent their autobiographies to branches of the Memorial Society and local history museums in Komi. For many, this was the very first time they had shared their stories with anyone. While Komi is unique in many ways, it is emblematic of processes that unfolded throughout the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at the end of the Twentieth Century. This project expands our understanding of how civil societies form under conditions of authoritarian rule and illuminates the ways in which survivors and societies come to terms with difficult pasts.Dissertation/ThesisDoctoral Dissertation History 201

    Strategy in the practice of statecraft? The interrelationship of foreign and military policies in Putin’s Russia, 2014-2021

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    This dissertation empirically examines press releases and documents issued by the Russian government to measure their relative frequency and intended message over the years 2014-2021. It then quantifies how the quantities of diplomatic meetings and military exercises over time shift the relative quality of Russia’s relations with other countries of the world as well as the degree of military threat expressed toward each country by the geographical and tactical distribution of the military exercises acknowledged by the state. Finally, it assesses this shifting distribution using mixed methodologies: a quantitative methodology to determine if and how the changing foreign policy quality and military threat are correlated and a qualitative methodology to examine the patterns by which different leading Russian politicians and bureaucratic organs discuss their competing outlooks on and objectives of policy. It concludes by assessing that despite efforts to better harmonise policymaking across the Russian government, relatively little evidence exists to suggest that a coherent strategy is determining the everyday coordination of Russian foreign and military policies

    Obscure Hands – Trusted Men. Textualization, the Office of the City Scribe and the Written Management of Information and Communication of the Council of Reval (Tallinn) before 1460

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    Informaationhallinta on 1900-luvulla syntynyt kĂ€site, joka tarkoittaa tiedon kerÀÀmistĂ€, prosessointia ja esittĂ€mistĂ€ pÀÀtöksenteon apuvĂ€lineenĂ€. VĂ€itöskirjani kĂ€sittelee Tallinnan (keskiajan saksankielinen nimi Reval) raadin informaationhallintaa sekĂ€ hallinnon ja kommunikaation tekstualisoitumista ensimmĂ€isestĂ€ tunnetusta kaupungin sinetillĂ€ varustetusta asiakirjasta (1257) kaupunginkirjuri Joachim Muterin elĂ€kkeelle siirtymiseen 1456/60. Milloin, kenen aloitteesta ja miten tekstualisoituminen eli kirjoitustaito teknologisena sovelluksena tuli keskeiseksi osaksi kaupungin hallintoa ja kommunikaatiota ja mikĂ€ oli kaupunginkirjureiden viran osuus tĂ€ssĂ€ prosessissa? Tutkimuksessani pohdin myös informaationhallinnan kĂ€sitteen kĂ€yttökelpoisuutta keskiajantutkimuksen, erityisesti 1300- ja 1400-lukujen valayhteisöihin perustuneiden kaupunkien vallan, hallinnon ja toimijuuden nĂ€kökulmasta. Tutkimus perustuu raadin toiminnasta Tallinnan kaupunginarkistossa sĂ€ilyneeseen laajaan, tuhansia kĂ€sikirjoitussivuja kĂ€sittĂ€vÀÀn alkuperĂ€ismateriaalin, jota on tĂ€ydennetty muiden ItĂ€meren alueen arkistojen aineistolla sekĂ€ lĂ€hdejulkaisuilla. Työn tulokset jakautuvat kolmelle alueelle, joita voidaan luonnehtia teoreettiseksi, metodologiseksi sekĂ€ Tallinnan keskiajan informaationhallinnalle ominaisia kĂ€ytĂ€ntöjĂ€ selvittĂ€vĂ€ksi. Teoreettisella alueella työ osoittaa, ettĂ€ modernien organisaatio-, instituutio- ja kommunikaatiotutkimuksen kĂ€sitteiden kĂ€yttö ei anakronistisuudestaan huolimatta ainoastaan auta jĂ€sentĂ€mÀÀn keskiaikaisen menneisyyden kollektiivisia toimijoita, vaan kykenee avaamaan uudenlaisia nĂ€kökulmia menneisyyden ilmiöiden, kuten informaationhallinnan, professionalisoitumisen ja hallinnon ymmĂ€rtĂ€miseen. MyöhĂ€iskeskiaikaisessa kaupunginhallinnossa ja erityisesti sen informaationhallinnassa yksittĂ€isten toimijoiden (Eng. ‘Actor’) kuten kaupunginkirjureiden, hallinnon eri sektoreista vastanneiden raatimiesten sekĂ€ itse raadin toimijuus (Eng. ‘Agency’) on tulkittavissa toimijaverkkoteorioiden (Eng. ‘actor-network theories’) kaltaiseksi asetelmaksi, jossa kukin toimija paitsi osallistui tehtĂ€vĂ€nsĂ€ ja koko organisaation jatkuvaan uusintamiseen, myös saattoi ottaa kĂ€yttöön innovaatioita ja muokata toimintatapoja oman koulutuksensa ja kokemuksensa mukaisesti. Keskiajan Tallinnassa ja erityisesti kaupunginkirjurin virassa tuloksena oli kirjureiden toimijuuden ammatillistuminen (Eng. ’professionalisation’), jossa sekĂ€ koulutustaso, kokemus, mutta myös 1300-luvulta lĂ€htien kaupunkien hallinnossa vahvistunut laillisuuden ja valaehtoisuuden vaatimus vaikuttivat kirjurin toimenkuvan sisĂ€ltöön ja yksilöiltĂ€ vaadittuihin kriteereihin. Erityisen hyvin tĂ€mĂ€ nĂ€kyy Joachim Muterin (1429–56/60) virkaan tulossa 1429, jota edeltĂ€nyt hiippakuntakirkon, dominikaanikonventin ja raadin kiista oikeudesta koulunpitoon Tallinnan alakaupungissa 1424–27 teki selvĂ€ksi, ettĂ€ kyetĂ€kseen puolustamaan etujaan korkeammissa oikeusasteissa, raadilla tuli olla kĂ€ytettĂ€vissÀÀn henkilö, joka kykeni vaativien juridisesti pĂ€tevien asiakirjojen tekoon. Muterista alkaen lĂ€hes kaikki Tallinnan kaupunginkirjurit olivatkin valantehneitĂ€ julkisia notaareja, kun taas hĂ€ntĂ€ edeltĂ€neillĂ€ kirjureilla ei tĂ€tĂ€ statusta tiedetĂ€ olleen. Keskeinen osa työn teoreettista jĂ€sentelyĂ€ on raadin keskiaikaisessa hallinnossa tuotettujen tekstien ja kirjoitettujen artefaktien (Eng.’text artefacts’) jaottelu tekstikĂ€ytĂ€nteiden tai -laatujen (Eng. ‘text permanence’) ja tekstityyppien (Eng.’text types’) avulla luonnehdittuihin, lĂ€hteistĂ€ nouseviin tiedollisiin kategorioihin (Eng. ’cognitional categories’), jossa kaupungin muistikirjat sekĂ€ erilaiset dokumentit ja missiivit muodostavat selkeĂ€n kokonaisuuden. Kuten laaja analyysi osoittaa, Tallinnan raadin informaatiohallinnassa sovelletut tekstikĂ€ytĂ€nteet ja tekstityypit vastasivat keskiaikaiselle hallinnolle ominaista syklistĂ€, tili- ja hallintovuoden kiertoon perustuvaa kokemuksellista aikakĂ€sitystĂ€, eikĂ€ niiden tavoitteena ollut kaupungin taloudellisen tilan tai mahdollisuuksien selvittĂ€minen. Modernista kirjanpidosta ja informaationhallinnasta poiketen Tallinnan keskiaikaiset tili- ja muistikirjat olivat pikemminkin tehtyjen toimenpiteiden ja kerĂ€ttyjen tietojen kronikoita, joiden keskeinen tehtĂ€vĂ€ oli auttaa vuosittaisina sykleinĂ€ toisiaan seuranneiden tapahtumaketjujen tai tietyn hallinnonalan alueella tehtyjen toimien dokumentoinnissa ja mieleen palauttamisessa. Tarkastelun helpottamiseksi ItĂ€meren alueen informaationhallinnan tekstualisoituminen on jaettu tutkimuksessa kolmeen, toistensa kanssa lomittain 1100-luvun lopulta 1400-luvulle ulottuvaan vaiheeseen, jotka kaikki ovat todennettavissa Tallinnan raadin toiminnasta sĂ€ilyneessĂ€ materiaalissa. EnsimmĂ€inen liittyi kirkollisen ja maallisen vallan toimijoiden 1100-luvun jĂ€lkipuolelta lĂ€htien antamiin sinetöityihin dokumentteihin, jossa kirjoitetut artefaktit ovat ymmĂ€rrettĂ€vissĂ€ sovittuja konventioita noudattaneiksi, tekstiĂ€ teknologiana hyvĂ€ksi kĂ€yttĂ€neiksi vallan manifestaatioiksi. Toinen vaihe sisĂ€ltÀÀ yksittĂ€isten toimijoiden, kuten territoriaalivallan, raadin kaltaisten valayhteisöiden ja kauppiaiden taloudenpidon ja hallinnon tekstualisoitumisen, jossa erilaiset rekisterit, sekĂ€ tili- ja muistikirjat muodostuivat 1200- ja 1300-luvun taitteesta lĂ€htien informaationhallinnan tĂ€rkeimmĂ€ksi teknologiseksi apuvĂ€lineeksi. Kolmas vaihe on molemmilla alueilla 1300-luvun jĂ€lkimmĂ€isellĂ€ puoliskolla lĂ€hes samanaikaisesti tapahtunut siirtymĂ€ kalliista pergamentista halpaan lumppupaperiin ja erityisopiskelua vaativasta latinasta nk. vulgaari- eli kansankielten kĂ€yttöön. Keskiajantutkimuksen metodologian ja erityisesti paleografisen tutkimuksen kannalta työ osoittaa, ettĂ€ kaiken ajan hallinnosta ja kommunikaatiosta sĂ€ilynyttĂ€ materiaalia koskevien pÀÀtelmien tulee perustua sekĂ€ siinĂ€ esiintyvien kĂ€sien, ts. kirjoituksesta vastanneiden henkilöiden kĂ€sialojen paleografiseen, ettĂ€ muistikirjojen ja dokumenttien kodikologiseen ja diplomatiikan keinoin tehtyyn analyysiin. Tekstin tuottaneiden henkilöiden statukseen liittyviĂ€ pÀÀtelmiĂ€ ei koskaan saa perustaa siihen, mitĂ€ raadin hallinnon sisĂ€isestĂ€ rakenteesta ja sen toimijoista tiedetÀÀn tai kuvitellaan tiedettĂ€vĂ€n, vaan analyysin on aina perustuttava muista samanaikaisista teksteistĂ€ kerĂ€ttyyn vertailumateriaaliin ja henkilöiden kĂ€sialalle ominaisten piirteiden tarkasteluun. Paleografiselta kannalta tĂ€rkeimmĂ€t erottelukriteerit liittyvĂ€t lyhennys- ja merkintĂ€tapoihin, eivĂ€t niinkÀÀn kirjainten kirjoitustapaan (Lat. ’ductus’), joka hallintoteksteissĂ€ saattaa vaihdella ajan kuluessa erilaisten kirjoitustapahtumaan (muste, sulkakynĂ€n ikĂ€), tekstin tarkoitukseen (muistiinpano, konsepti, puhtaaksikirjoitus) tai kirjoittajan ikÀÀn ja terveyteen (likinĂ€köisyys, silmien ongelmat) liittyvien tekijöiden vuoksi. PysyvĂ€sti tehtĂ€vÀÀnsĂ€ palkattu kaupunginkirjuri oli 1300-luvun ensimmĂ€iseltĂ€ neljĂ€nnekseltĂ€ lĂ€htien Tallinnan raadin hallinnossa toimija, jonka toimijuus muodostui kirjoitetun informaationhallinnan kĂ€ytĂ€nnön organisoimisesta ja sen jatkuvuuden yllĂ€pitĂ€misestĂ€, missĂ€ eri kirjurit kokeilivat ennakkoluulottomasti ammatillisen verkostonsa piirissĂ€ ilmenneitĂ€ innovaatioita ja uudistuksia. NĂ€istĂ€ tĂ€rkeimpiĂ€ olivat kaupunginkirjojen kĂ€yttöönotto heti kaupungin tonttialueen laajentamisen jĂ€lkeen 1310, paperin kĂ€yttöönotto kirjoitusalustana 1350-luvun alussa, samaan aikaan tapahtunut keskialasaksan leviĂ€minen kirjoitetun informaationhallinnan ja viestinnĂ€n kielenĂ€ sekĂ€ indoarabialaisten numeroiden kokeilut 1400-luvun alussa. Paperin ja keskialasaksan tunkeutuminen aikaisemmin pergamentin ja latinan hallitsemille kirjoitettujen dokumenttien ja hallinnollisten rekistereiden alueelle ei ollut yksiselitteinen prosessi, vaan sisĂ€lsi useita erilaisia vaiheita ja vaikutti myös kirjoitetun materiaalin tuotantoon osallistuneiden henkilöiden mÀÀrÀÀn. Erityisen mielenkiintoisella tavalla tĂ€mĂ€ nĂ€kyy raadin hallinnossa 1360- ja 1370-luvuilla tuotetussa materiaalissa, jossa pergamentin ja paperin kaltaiseen sileÀÀn kirjoitusalustaan ja sulkakynÀÀn tottuneiden kaupunginkirjureiden ja heidĂ€n tĂ€rkeimpien sijaistensa kĂ€sialat erottuvat selkeĂ€sti pÀÀosin styluksella vahatauluille aiemmin kirjottaneiden satunnaisten sijaisten tai hallinnon eri alueista vastanneiden raatimiesten kĂ€sistĂ€. Tallinnan raadin hallinnon osalta tutkimuksen tĂ€rkeimpiĂ€ tuloksia ovat yksityiskohtainen, varmoihin ajoituksiin perustuva luettelo kaupunginkirjurin toimen haltijoista ja heidĂ€n tĂ€rkeimmistĂ€ sijaisistaan vuoteen 1460, sekĂ€ kĂ€sitys raadin hallinnon, taloudenpidon ja kommunikaation tili-, muisti- ja kopiokirjojen linjoista ja niiden tehtĂ€vĂ€stĂ€ raadin ylisukupolvisessa informaationhallinnassa. Muiden suurten raatikaupunkien tapaan tĂ€rkeĂ€ Tallinnan kaupunginkirjojen ryhmĂ€ olivat punaisella nahalla pÀÀllystetyt muisti- ja tilikirjat sekĂ€ lakikoodeksit, jossa punainen vĂ€ri symboloi raadin auktoriteettia itsenĂ€isenĂ€ toimijana. Kirjureiden osalta tĂ€rkeimmĂ€ksi muistikirjojen linjaksi osoittautuivat kaupungin tonttialueen kiinteistöjen luovutuksia (’resignations’) sekĂ€ niitĂ€ vastaan otettujen velkojen julkistamista (’recognitions’) ja korkoja (’annuities’) koskevat, vuodesta 1310 yhtĂ€jaksoisesti pidetyt rekisterit, joiden yllĂ€pidosta vastasivat virassa toimineet kaupunginkirjurit ja heidĂ€n sijaisensa. Tutkimus osoittaa alun perin kaupunginkirjurin henkilöön sijoitun ‘liikkuvan’ tekstituotannon vakiintumisen sitĂ€ varta vasten 1370-luvun puolivĂ€lissĂ€ rakennettuun kirjurintaloon, niin ettĂ€ sekĂ€ kirjurintalon rakentaminen ettĂ€ raatihuoneen ja kaupunginmuurin 1370-luvulla tehdyt parannukset vastaavat Tallinnan kaupungin taloudellisessa asemassa ja raadin vaikutusvallassa 1300-luvun puolivĂ€lissĂ€ tapahtunutta muutosta. Samoihin aikoihin vain parista muistikirjojen linjasta sekĂ€ raadin dokumenttien ja missiivien tuotannosta vastanneiden kaupunginkirjureiden toimi laajeni hallinnon muille alueille, joissa rekistereitĂ€ yllĂ€pitivĂ€t siitĂ€ vastanneet raatimiehet. ViimeistÀÀn 1400-luvun toisella neljĂ€nneksellĂ€ kaupunginkirjureiden vastuulla oli koko raadin kirjoitettu informaationhallinta, jossa heidĂ€n osallisuutensa vaihteli tekstien, koodeksien ja dokumenttien tuottamisesta raatimiesten materiaalista koostettuihin yhteenvetoihin ja vuosittaiseen kontrolliin. NĂ€mĂ€kin muutokset olivat yhteydessĂ€ 1400-luvun alussa rakennetun uuden raatihuoneen sekĂ€ 1430-luvulla kirjurintalon laajennustöiden luomiin uusiin tilaratkaisuihin. Tallinnan raadin ja alueen muiden valtaorgaanien asiakirjojen tuotannosta vastasivat 1200-luvun kolmannelta neljĂ€nnekseltĂ€ 1300-luvun alkuun Tallinnan hiippakunnan palveluksessa tai muuten kaupungissa olleet kirkonmiehet. Koska kaikki raadin hallinnossa ja kommunikaatiossa tuotetut kirjoitetut artefaktit olivat 1350-luvulle saakka latinaa, kirkollisen koulujĂ€rjestelmĂ€n lĂ€pĂ€isseiden henkilöiden palkkaaminen kaupunginkirjureiksi tai heidĂ€n sijaisikseen oli luonnollista. Vaikka kirjureiden palkkauksessa vaikuttaa jo 1300-luvun ensimmĂ€isellĂ€ neljĂ€nneksellĂ€ vakiintuneen kĂ€ytĂ€ntö, jossa kirjurit toimivat vikaareina raadin patronaatin alaisilla alttareilla tai kappeleissa, kenellĂ€kÀÀn vuotta 1460 edeltĂ€neellĂ€ kirjurilla ei tiedetĂ€ olleen varsinaista pappisvihkimystĂ€. Sen sijaan kyseessĂ€ ovat olleet alemman asteen kirkolliset vihkimykset omanneet miehet, jotka eivĂ€t osallistuneet liturgian toimittamiseen, mutta nauttivat osan palkastaan alttarin tai kappelin kauppiaille myöntĂ€mien lainojen korkoina. Kirkon kanonisessa oikeudessa tĂ€llainen oli mahdollista vuodesta 1298, jolloin paavin sÀÀdös ‘Cum ex eo’ antoi hiippakunnan piispalle mahdollisuuden vapauttaa kenet tahansa alemmat vihkimykset saaneen henkilön seitsemĂ€ksi vuodeksi kirkollisista velvollisuuksista, jos hĂ€n suunnitteli yliopisto-opintoja. Tallinnassa merkkejĂ€ tĂ€mĂ€n kaltaisista jĂ€rjestelyistĂ€ on jo 1310 ja 1320-luvuilta. Kaikki tutkimusajalta tunnetut Tallinnan kaupunginkirjurit ja heidĂ€n tĂ€rkeimmĂ€t sijaisensa olivat raadin palvelukseensa palkkaamia tekstin tuotannon ammattilaisia, joiden koulutustaso on epĂ€selvĂ€. Koska yhdenkÀÀn yliopisto-opinnoista ei ole varmoja tietoja, olen arvioinut koulutustasoa myös kunkin kĂ€den jĂ€lkeensĂ€ jĂ€ttĂ€mĂ€n tekstimateriaalin avulla. Erityisen tĂ€rkeitĂ€ ovat olleet kirjureiden sulkakyniĂ€ kokeillessa kirjoittamat aikakauden oppineeseen kulttuuriin kuuluneet lauseet, sananlaskut, Raamatun jakeet ja symbolit, joiden perusteella erĂ€iden heistĂ€ on tĂ€ytynyt opiskella ainakin lyhyitĂ€ aikoja yliopistossa. Osa kynĂ€nkokeiluista (Eng. ‘Pen trials’) todistaa raadin palveluksessa toimineiden henkilöiden intellektuaalisista ja kulttuurillisista yhteyksistĂ€ dominikaaneihin, mistĂ€ on viitteitĂ€ muissa tutkimuksissa. Palkkauksen perusteella Tallinnan kaupunginkirjurin toimi ja asema oli verrannollinen kaupungin palveluksessa olleisiin korkeimman tason kĂ€sityölĂ€ismestareihin kuten tykinvalajaan tai varsijousiseppÀÀn. NĂ€iden teknologisten huippuammattilaisten tavoin kaupunginkirjuri oli viimeistÀÀn 1300-luvun lopulta vastuussa alaisuudessaan työskennelleestĂ€ ‘hytistÀ’, kirjurintalosta, jossa raadin informaationhallinnan kannalta tarpeelliset kirjalliset artefaktit tuotettiin. KĂ€sityölĂ€ismestareiden tavoin kaupunginkirjureilla oli omia, osittain viranhoitoon liittyviĂ€ sivuliiketoimiaan, mutta heistĂ€ poiketen kirjureiden palkka koostui useista erilaisista vuotuisista raha- ja tarvikesuorituksista, jopa raadille kuuluvien varsinaisten tulojen, kuten Narvan paalurahan tuoton vuokrauksesta. Palkan muodoista olivat jo 1300-luvulla yleisimpiĂ€ raadin alaisten alttareiden ja kappeleiden lainojen tuotot, neljĂ€nnesvuosittain tai useammassa osassa maksettu vuosipalkka, erilaiset palkanlisĂ€t, polttopuut, kengĂ€t ja vaatteet. Vaatteita varten annettu hienolaatuinen flanderilainen villakangas oli tarkoitettu myös symbolisoimaan raadin mahtia kun kirjuri otti osaa raadin muiden mahtien luo ja kaupunkien kokouksiin tekemiin lĂ€hetystöihin. LĂ€hetystöjen ja vuodesta 1429 vakiintuneen julkisen notaarin arvon vaatimuksen seurauksena kirjureiden tehtĂ€vĂ€t ulottuivat kauas Tallinnan kirjurintalon, raatihuoneen ja muurien taakse, mikĂ€ todistaa heidĂ€n merkityksestÀÀn tekstintuottamisen ja informaationhallinnan ammattilaisina ja luotettuina henkilöinĂ€.Management of information is essentially a modern concept meaning the organisation and control over the structure, processing and delivering of information for different uses in decision making. In my PhD thesis, I explore and discuss the possibilities of its use in the context of the administration and communication of the council of Reval (today Tallinn, capital of Estonia) from the earliest known use of the seal of the city in 1257 to the retirement of city scribe and notary public Joachim Muter from his office in 1456/60. My focus is on both the formation of the agency (office) of the city scribes as hired professionals in the written management of information of the civic authority and the process of textualization: that is, the application of the technology of writing in the management of information, communication, administration and textual manifestations of authority in the activity of the council. The study is based on the vast corpus of original material from the council activity still available in the Tallinn City Archives of with supplements from other archives and source editions. The theoretical background of my study is set in the field of organisational, institutional and communicative studies, but firmly anchored to the nature and composition of the medieval textual products as manifested in the archives and researched in Medieval studies. The nature of different ‘actors’, such as the city scribes and councillors, and their ‘agencies’ (i.e. offices) in the administration of the civic authority, is seen through actor-network theories, where individual actors not only brought substance, views and methods of conduct of their own to the issues they dealt with in the organisation, but also took part in the continuous reproduction of the organisation itself in the everyday manifestations of their agencies. Here, the of the agency of the city scribes was of special importance, not just because of its development into an office taking control of the production and surveillance of the various textual products in the administration and communication of the council, but also because of the schooling and professional qualifications of the scribes. As in our modern society, in late medieval Reval the dialectic process of the emergence of recognisable ‘professions’ in organisations was a self-feeding system based on qualifications and attributes required for the ‘task’ or ‘profession’ and the attributes and ethos created through it. As my study shows, permanently hired city scribes emerged as practical and intellectual carriers of the textualization of the written management of information of civic authority and introduced views and conventions of their own particular to their time, their various professional networks and themselves, all still identifiable from the sources. In the study the typology of the produced texts and textual artefacts is grounded in the role of text types and text permanences characteristic to the textual rendition of acts of authority, the observed chain of events, or the particular type of information required for contemporary recording, managing, controlling and securing them. Based on cognitive and pragmatic models of thinking, I have understood the medieval text types and permanences as conceptual categories of experienced reality rendered by means of textual technologies arising from the material itself. As my analysis of the civic memoranda of Reval shows, the employed text types and permanences corresponded to contemporary cognitional modes of thinking, and were deeply rooted in a chronological, cyclic and seasonal perception of time. Because of this, most of the surviving Revalian books of memoranda manifest themselves as ‘textual chronicles’ of past events designed for memorizing and documenting the chronological flow of transactions, administrative decisions and corroborations in the particular sphere of activity and administration. As my study shows, this makes them fundamentally different from cognitional models based on the concept of ‘available resources’ or ‘planning’ characteristic of their modern equivalents, a distinction that provides further tools for understanding the nature of written management of information in the administration of medieval civic authorities such as those of Reval. In the study, the process of textualization of the management of information and written manifestations of authority in the Baltic Sea area from the 12th century to the mid-15th is divided into three phases, all three being evident in the 13th- to 14th-century Revalian civic administration. Here the study throws light especially on the development of the use of the seal and the secretum as the sign of civic authority, as well as the introduction of paper and vernacular into the management of information and communication of the city in the third quarter of the 14th century. Especially the two last phenomena tell us of an early willingness of the city scribes to experiment with new innovations in their field of expertise: a willingness also exhibited in the early use of indoarabic numerals by some of the city scribes in the first third of the 15th century. With the help of palaeographic analysis of hands and codicological-diplomatic evaluation of the material I have been able to establish not only a secure lineage of Revalian city scribes and their most important substitutes active before 1456/60, but also an understanding of the various lines of civic memoranda and production of documents in the management of information of the council. In the area of civic memoranda my most important findings establish the category of ’red books’ as a special line of prestige among the memoranda of the city, the crucial role of the books of resignations/recognitions and annuities for establishing the main hands active in the written management of the civic administration, and the developments in the size and portability of the codices as an indication of a shift from an itinerant office of the city scribes to permanent control of all the civic memoranda, a process parallel to the stabilisation of the management of information of the council to the City Scriptorium and Town Hall in the 1370’s. From the second quarter of the 14th century, the central task of the scribes was the control of the registers of basic information about the walled area of the city, whence this pattern of control spread to areas of fiscal administration previously in the custody of the councillor-wardens. In these fields the work of the scribe varied in scale from full production of finished accounts and text artefacts to annual checking, controlling and/or partial management and archiving of the material produced by the councillors. As regards the identification, identity and professionalisation of the city scribes, my study clearly shows that no assumptions about the identity or status of the scribes engaged in writing for medieval civic authority should ever be made on the basis of supposed organisation of the civic administration and the suggested structure of agencies in it. Instead, any analysis of an individual piece of memoranda or document should always be grounded on a wider knowledge of contemporary hands active in the main corpus of the memoranda of the time. From as early as the third quarter of the 13th century the hands responsible for the production of sealed charters for the joint corroboration of multiple agents of the area were officials and clergy of the church of Reval, and contacts between the scribes active in the diocesan management of information appear to have continued to the
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