21,467 research outputs found
Is Captain Kirk a natural blonde? Do X-ray crystallographers dream of electron clouds? Comparing model-based inferences in science with fiction
Scientific models share one central characteristic with fiction: their relation to the physical world is ambiguous. It is often unclear whether an element in a model represents something in the world or presents an artifact of model building. Fiction, too, can resemble our world to varying degrees. However, we assign a different epistemic function to scientific representations. As artifacts of human activity, how are scientific representations allowing us to make inferences about real phenomena? In reply to this concern, philosophers of science have started analyzing scientific representations in terms of fictionalization strategies. Many arguments center on a dyadic relation between the model and its target system, focusing on structural resemblances and βas ifβ scenarios. This chapter provides a different approach. It looks more closely at model building to analyze the interpretative strategies dealing with the representational limits of models. How do we interpret ambiguous elements in models? Moreover, how do we determine the validity of model-based inferences to information that is not an explicit part of a representational structure? I argue that the problem of ambiguous inference emerges from two features of representations, namely their hybridity and incompleteness. To distinguish between fictional and non-fictional elements in scientific models my suggestion is to look at the integrative strategies that link a particular model to other methods in an ongoing research context. To exemplify this idea, I examine protein modeling through X-ray crystallography as a pivotal method in biochemistry
The pragmatics of specialized communication
El presente artΓculo pretende poner de manifiesto la importancia de la
pragmΓ‘tica en relaciΓ³n con la comunicaciΓ³n especializada. La estructura, el
contenido y la terminologΓa de los textos especializados se ven afectados por
factores como la propia situaciΓ³n comunicativa y el conocimiento, intenciones,
expectativas y creencias previos del emisor del texto. La transmisiΓ³n de tal
significado es difΓcil incluso en una sola lengua. Cuando la transmisiΓ³n se
produce entre dos lenguas, como es el caso de cualquier acto de traducciΓ³n, las
dificultades se multiplican. Por esta razΓ³n, es fundamental que los traductores
sean conscientes de cΓ³mo la pragmΓ‘tica, mΓ‘s que ningΓΊn otro componente del
lenguaje, puede afectar de forma decisiva a su actividad profesional
ΠΠ°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠΎΠ±Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π² ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠ°Ρ ΡΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π½ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΈ
ΠΠ±ΡΠ΅ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΡΠ΅ ΡΠ΅ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄Ρ ΠΊ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠ»ΠΎ, Π²ΠΏΠΎΠ»Π½Π΅ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ³ΠΎΠ΄Π½Ρ Π΄Π»Ρ ΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ ΡΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΡΠΌΠΈ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΡΡ
ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΠΈ ΠΈΡ
ΡΠΎΡΡΠ°Π²Π»ΡΡΡΠΈΡ
. Π ΡΠ°ΡΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ, Π² Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΌ Π°Π΄ΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΡΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠΈ ΠΎΡΠΎΠ±Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΠ±Π»Π΅ΠΌΠ½ΡΠΌ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ°Π²Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΎΠ±Π΅ΡΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ΅Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΠΈΠΏΠΎΠ² Π³ΠΎΡΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π΅Π΄Π»ΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΡΠΈ, Π° ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΆΠ΅ Π²Π½Π΅Π΄ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ², ΠΏΡΠΈ ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΡ
Π΄Π»Ρ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠΏΠ»Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ² Π²ΡΠΏΠΎΠ»Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ·Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ² ΠΏΠΎ Π²Π½Π΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΏΠ»Π°ΡΠ΅ΠΆΠ΅ΠΉ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΎΠ²ΠΈΡΡΡ Π±ΠΎΠ»Π΅Π΅ Π²ΡΠ³ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΡΠΌ, ΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠΊΠ»ΠΎΠ½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΡ ΠΈΡ
ΡΠΏΠ»Π°ΡΡ. ΠΠΎ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡ
ΡΠ°Π·Π²ΠΈΠ²Π°ΡΡΠΈΡ
ΡΡ ΡΡΡΠ°Π½Π°Ρ
Π½Π΅ΡΠΏΠΎΡΠΎΠ±Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ²Π° Π² ΡΠ²ΡΠ·ΠΈ Ρ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΡΠΈΠ½Π°ΠΌΠΈ ΡΠ΅Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ Π·Π°Π΄Π΅ΠΊΠ»Π°ΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΠ³ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΌΡ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠΎ ΡΠ²Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π½ΡΠΌ ΠΏΡΠ΅ΠΏΡΡΡΡΠ²ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎ-ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ°Π·Π²ΠΈΡΠΈΡ. ΠΠΌΠΏΠ»Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΡ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡ
ΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΠΈΠ°ΡΠΈΠ² ΠΏΠΎ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π΅ Π²ΡΠ΅Π³Π΄Π° ΡΡΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ½Π° ΠΈΠ·-Π·Π° ΠΎΡΡΡΡΡΡΠ²ΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΡΡΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΈΠΉ Π² Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠΈΠΊΠ΅ ΡΡΡΡΠΊΡΡΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ. Π¨ΠΈΡΠΎΠΊΠΎ ΠΈΠ·Π²Π΅ΡΡΠ½Ρ ΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π½ΠΎΠ²ΡΡ
ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ² Π² ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ°Ρ
ΡΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π½ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΈ, Π² ΡΠ°ΡΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ, ΠΏΡΠΈ ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠΈ ΠΈ Π΄Π²ΠΈΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΈ Π΄ΠΎΡ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ², ΡΠ°ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ² ΠΈ Π΄ΠΎΠ»Π³ΠΎΠ². ΠΡΠΈ ΡΡΠ°Π½Π΄Π°ΡΡΠ½ΠΎΠΌ Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π΅ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΡΡ
ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠΎ ΠΈΠ³Π½ΠΎΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΡΠ΅Π·ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π°Π΄ΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΡΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ, ΡΠ²ΡΠ·Π°Π½Π½Π°Ρ Ρ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ ΠΈΠ·Π΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠΊΠ°ΠΌΠΈ ΠΈ Π²Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠ΅Π½Π΅Π²ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ: ΡΠ΅ΡΡ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Ρ ΠΎ Π·Π°ΡΡΠ°ΡΠ°Ρ
ΠΏΠ»Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ² ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ·Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΏΠ»Π°ΡΠ΅ΠΆΠ΅ΠΉ ΠΈ ΡΠ±ΠΎΡΠΎΠ² ΠΈ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΡΡ
ΠΎΡΠ³Π°Π½ΠΎΠ², Π° ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΆΠ΅ ΠΎΠ± ΠΈΠ½ΡΡ
, Π½Π΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Π»Π΅ΠΆΠ°ΡΠΈΡ
ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½ΠΊΠ΅ ΡΠΎΡΡΠ°Π²Π»ΡΡΡΠΈΡ
Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠΎΠ±Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ, Π²ΠΊΠ»ΡΡΠ°Ρ ΠΌΠΎΡΠΈΠ²Π°ΡΠΈΡ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ Π·Π°ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠ΄Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ²Π°. ΠΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎΠ΅ Π·Π½Π°ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π΅Ρ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅, ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΎΡΠ²ΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΠΏΠΏΠΎΡΡΡΠ½ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ°, ΡΠ΅Π³ΡΠ»ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠΏΠΎΡΠΎΠ±ΠΎΠ² ΠΏΡΠ±Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ°ΡΠΊΡΡΡΠΈΡ ΠΈΠ½ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ, ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΈΠ½ΡΡΡΡΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠΎΠ² Π²Π·ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ². ΠΡΠΈ ΡΠ°Π·ΡΠ°Π±ΠΎΡΠΊΠ΅ Π΄Π΅ΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΏΠ»Π°Π½ΠΎΠ² ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠ±Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠΌΠΎ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠΈΡΡΡΡ ΠΊ ΠΌΠ°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΌΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π½ΡΡ
ΡΠΈΠΊΠ»ΠΎΠ² Π΄Π²ΠΈΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π½ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΡ
ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡΡΠΎΠ² Π² Π΄ΠΎΡ
ΠΎΠ΄Π°Ρ
ΠΈ ΡΠ°ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ΄Π°Ρ
, Π° ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΆΠ΅ ΡΡΠΈΡΡΠ²Π°ΡΡ ΡΠ³ΡΠΎΠ·Ρ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π±ΡΠ΄ΠΆΠ΅ΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΎΠ², ΠΏΡΠΈ ΡΡΠΎΠΌ ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΌ ΠΈΠ· Π³Π»Π°Π²Π½ΡΡ
Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ΅Π½ Π±ΡΡΡ Π²ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΡ Π²ΡΠ±ΠΎΡΠ° ΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠΎΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΠ². ΠΠ·Π²Π΅ΡΡΠ½Ρ ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ°ΠΈ, ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Π΄ΠΎΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠΎΠΎΠ±ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ ΠΈ ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄ΡΠ½Π°ΡΠΎΠ΄Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΎΡΠ³Π°Π½ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΠΈ Π½Π°ΡΡΠ°ΠΈΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ Π½Π° Π½Π΅ΠΎΠ±Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΡΠΈ Π²Π½Π΅Π΄ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ°Π·ΡΠΎΠ² Β«Π»ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΉ ΠΏΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΊΠΈΒ», ΠΎΡΠΎΠ±Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ Π΅ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π»ΡΠ»ΠΎΡΡ ΠΏΡΠΈ ΠΈΡ
ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π½ΡΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Π΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠΊΠ΅. ΠΡΠ΄Π°Π²Π°Ρ Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΌ ΠΏΠΎΠ·ΠΈΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΡΠΌ ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ°ΠΌ, ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΠ΅Ρ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅ΡΡ Π² Π²ΠΈΠ΄Ρ, ΡΡΠΎ Π΄Π»Ρ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΆΠ΄ΠΎΠΉ ΡΡΡΠ°Π½Ρ Ρ
Π°ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠ½Ρ ΡΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ, ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠΎΠΌΡ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ Π΅Π΅ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ Π²ΠΎ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠΌ Π±ΡΠ΄Π΅Ρ Π·Π°Π²ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΡ ΠΎΡ ΡΡΠ΅ΡΠ° ΠΌΠ΅ΡΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΎΡΠΎΠ±Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡΠ΅ΠΉ. Π ΡΠ΅Π»ΠΎΠΌ Π·Π°Π΄Π°ΡΠ° ΡΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΡΠΌΠΈ Π² ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ°Ρ
Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΡΡ
ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π½ΡΠΎΠ² ΡΡΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ Π²Π½Π΅ΡΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΠΈ Π²Π½ΡΡΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠΎΡΠ°ΠΌΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ, ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠΎΠΌΡ ΠΏΡΠΈ Π»ΡΠ±ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ²Π°Ρ
Π½Π΅ΠΎΠ±Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠΌΠΎ ΠΎΠ±Π΅ΡΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²Π°ΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ Π±ΡΠ΄ΠΆΠ΅ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ° ΠΈ ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ²ΠΎΠΈΡ
ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΡΠΈΡΡΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π½ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ·Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ². Π Π΅Π³ΡΠ»ΡΡΠΎΡΠ½Π°Ρ ΡΡΠ½ΠΊΡΠΈΡ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ½Π° Π±ΡΡΡ Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° ΡΠ΅Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ ΡΡΡΠΎΠΉΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ°Π·Π²ΠΈΡΠΈΡ, ΡΠΎΠΎΡΠ²Π΅ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ, Π² ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΊΠ°Ρ
Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΡ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΡΡΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠ° Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΅Π³ΡΠ»ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ, Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ½Ρ ΡΠ°Π±ΠΎΡΠ°ΡΡ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΌΠ΅Ρ
Π°Π½ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΡ Π½Π°Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ², ΡΠ±ΠΎΡΠΎΠ², Π° ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΆΠ΅ Π»ΡΠ³ΠΎΡ ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΡΠΈΠΉ Π²ΠΎ Π²Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΠ²ΡΠ·ΠΈ Ρ ΡΠ°ΡΡ
ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ ΡΡΠ°ΡΡΡΠΌΠΈ, ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ°ΠΌΠΈ ΠΈ ΡΡΠ±ΡΠΈΠ΄ΠΈΡΠΌΠΈ.Generally, standard theoretical approaches to reforming national economy are quite usable for goals of managing changes of taxation systems and their components. In particular, of most problematic issue for tax administration is all-round provision of implementing principles of horizontal justice, as well as introducing the approaches which allow the execution of commitments on making payments by taxpayers to be more profitable than evasion. In many developing countries, due to political reasons the governmentβs inability to implement their declared programs is frequently the main obstacle to improving the socio-economic progress. Implementation of many reform initiatives is not always successful due to absence of clear strategies in governmental policy of structural transformations. There are wide known models of applying new approaches in systems of public finance management (PFM), particularly, in regard of formation and dynamics of revenues, expenses, debts. The standard analysis of tax systems ignores, as a rule, the efficiency of tax administration connected with transaction costs and shadow economy influence: the issue is about the expenses, on one hand, for payers of obligatory payments and levies, and on the other hand, for taxation authorities, as well as about the other taxation components, non-subject to quantitative assessment, including motivation of breaching legislation. Of great significance is tax behavior, prevention of opportunism, regulation of not only tax rates and taxation basis but also of ways of public information accessibility, application of systemic toolkits of tax collection. While developing detailed plans of reforming, it is necessary to strain after maximum efficiency of continuous cycles of financial resource movements in terms of revenues and expenditures, as well as to consider challenges for interruption of the budget processes. At that, one of the main issue is, obviously, selection of targets and priorities. There are known cases, when the donor community and international organizations insist on βthe best practicesβ introduction, especially if the reforming is carried out with their financial support. In justice to numerous positive examples, it should be borne in mind that each taxation system of every country is characterized by their specific traits, so the efficiency of its reforming will at large depend on considering local features. On the whole, the task of managing changes in the public finance systems is getting more complicated in the context of external and internal factors of uncertainty. Thus, in any circumstances it is vital to ensure continuity of the budget process, as well as execution by the state of its constitutional obligations. The regulatory potential of economy should be focused on implementing sustainable economic development goals. Accordingly, in the taxation system framework, as a strategic tool for governmental regulation, there must function efficient mechanisms of taxes and levies, as well as benefits and preferences in coordination with expenditure items, transfers and subsidies
Measuring University Contributions to Regional Economies: A Discussion of Guidelines for Enhancing Credibility
In light of tight state fiscal accounts, increased competition among all government service providers for scarce resources, and a poorly performing national economy, public universities are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their worth to regional or statewide economies.οΏ½ This has resulted in a proliferation of university economic impact studies.This paper is a guide to assist public university economic impact practitioners plan, structure, evaluate, and disseminate higher education economic information that can be used for policy development, general planning, and overall university relations.οΏ½ It provides some basic considerations, cautions, and checks that university economic impact studies should keep in mind when engaging in this activity.οΏ½university; university economic impact; guidelines
Learning Functional Prepositions
In first language acquisition, what does it mean for a grammatical category to have been acquired, and what are the mechanisms by which children learn functional categories in general? In the context of prepositions (Ps), if the lexical/functional divide cuts through the P category, as has been suggested in the theoretical literature, then constructivist accounts of language acquisition would predict that children develop adult-like competence with the more abstract units, functional Ps, at a slower rate compared to their acquisition of lexical Ps. Nativists instead assume that the features of functional P are made available by Universal Grammar (UG), and are mapped as quickly, if not faster, than the semantic features of their lexical counterparts. Conversely, if Ps are either all lexical or all functional, on both accounts of acquisition we should observe few differences in learning.
Three empirical studies of the development of P were conducted via computer analysis of the English and Spanish sub-corpora of the CHILDES database. Study 1 analyzed errors in child usage of Ps, finding almost no errors in commission in either language, but that the English learners lag in their production of functional Ps relative to lexical Ps. That no such delay was found in the Spanish data suggests that the English pattern is not universal. Studies 2 and 3 applied novel measures of phrasal (P head + nominal complement) productivity to the data. Study 2 examined prepositional phrases (PPs) whose head-complement pairs appeared in both child and adult speech, while Study 3 considered PPs produced by children that never occurred in adult speech. In both studies the productivity of Ps for English children developed faster than that of lexical Ps. In Spanish there were few differences, suggesting that children had already mastered both orders of Ps early in acquisition. These empirical results suggest that at least in English P is indeed a split category, and that children acquire the syntax of the functional subset very quickly, committing almost no errors. The UG position is thus supported.
Next, the dissertation investigates a \u27soft nativist\u27 acquisition strategy that composes the distributional analysis of input, minimal a priori knowledge of the possible co-occurrence of morphosyntactic features associated with functional elements, and linguistic knowledge that is presumably acquired via the experience of pragmatic, communicative situations. The output of the analysis consists in a mapping of morphemes to the feature bundles of nominative pronouns for English and Spanish, plus specific claims about the sort of knowledge required from experience.
The acquisition model is then extended to adpositions, to examine what, if anything, distributional analysis can tell us about the functional sequences of PPs. The results confirm the theoretical position according to which spatiotemporal Ps are lexical in character, rooting their own extended projections, and that functional Ps express an aspectual sequence in the functional superstructure of the PP
Looking Beyond Label Noise: Shifted Label Distribution Matters in Distantly Supervised Relation Extraction
In recent years there is a surge of interest in applying distant supervision
(DS) to automatically generate training data for relation extraction (RE). In
this paper, we study the problem what limits the performance of DS-trained
neural models, conduct thorough analyses, and identify a factor that can
influence the performance greatly, shifted label distribution. Specifically, we
found this problem commonly exists in real-world DS datasets, and without
special handing, typical DS-RE models cannot automatically adapt to this shift,
thus achieving deteriorated performance. To further validate our intuition, we
develop a simple yet effective adaptation method for DS-trained models, bias
adjustment, which updates models learned over the source domain (i.e., DS
training set) with a label distribution estimated on the target domain (i.e.,
test set). Experiments demonstrate that bias adjustment achieves consistent
performance gains on DS-trained models, especially on neural models, with an up
to 23% relative F1 improvement, which verifies our assumptions. Our code and
data can be found at
\url{https://github.com/INK-USC/shifted-label-distribution}.Comment: 13 pages: 10 pages paper, 3 pages appendix. Appears at EMNLP 201
Event processing in the visual world:projected motion paths during spoken sentence comprehension
Motion events in language describe the movement of an entity to another location along a path. In 2 eye-tracking experiments, we found that comprehension of motion events involves the online construction of a spatial mental model that integrates language with the visual world. In Experiment 1, participants listened to sentences describing the movement of an agent to a goal while viewing visual scenes depicting the agent, goal, and empty space in between. Crucially, verbs suggested either upward (e.g., jump) or downward (e.g., crawl) paths. We found that in the rare event of fixating the empty space between the agent and goal, visual attention was biased upward or downward in line with the verb. In Experiment 2, visual scenes depicted a central obstruction, which imposed further constraints on the paths and increased the likelihood of fixating the empty space between the agent and goal. The results from this experiment corroborated and refined the previous findings. Specifically, eye-movement effects started immediately after hearing the verb and were in line with data from an additional mouse-tracking task that encouraged a more explicit spatial reenactment of the motion event. In revealing how event comprehension operates in the visual world, these findings suggest a mental simulation process whereby spatial details of motion events are mapped onto the world through visual attention. The strength and detectability of such effects in overt eye-movements is constrained by the visual world and the fact that perceivers rarely fixate regions of empty space
Opening up to big data: computer-assisted analysis of textual data in social sciences
"Two developments in computational text analysis may change the way qualitative data analysis in social sciences is performed: 1. the availability of digital text worth to investigate is growing rapidly, and 2. the improvement of algorithmic information extraction approaches, also called text mining, allows for further bridging the gap between qualitative and quantitative text analysis. The key factor hereby is the inclusion of context into computational linguistic models which extends conventional computational content analysis towards the extraction of meaning. To clarify methodological differences of various computer-assisted text analysis approaches the article suggests a typology from the perspective of a qualitative researcher. This typology shows compatibilities between manual qualitative data analysis methods and computational, rather quantitative approaches for large scale mixed method text analysis designs." (author's abstract
- β¦